SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA FROM PRE-HISTORY TO 1500 C.E.

1. SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA FROM PRE-HISTORY TO 1500 C.E.

2. PRE-HISTORIC AFRICA • Regions in Africa • Sub-Saharan Africa vs. Northern Africa (inc. Nile Valley) • The Sahara is the greatest physical and cultural barrier • North settled early by Berbers, Hamites (Caucasian groups) • Sub-Saharan Africa has larger regions with many micro regions • West Africa Forest, Sahel called Sudan, Central Africa, East Africa, South Africa • Each region defined by physical geography and vegetation; many micro cultures • North and East Africa saw first “African” civilizations • The Nile River: Pharaonic Egypt; Kush-Meroe (often called Nubia) • The Ethiopian Highlands: Axum (Aksum) or Ethiopia • North Africa: Carthaginian Empire, Roman and Greek civilizations • The Sudan • Sudanic region was sahel or plains stretching across Africa south of Sahara • 9000 B.C.E. domestication of cattle; cultivation of sorghum, cotton • Became home to most Sub-Saharan civilizations • Small states based on tribes, clans developed • Religion: polytheism, shamanism, placation of spirits, divination • Climatic Change • Prior to 5000 CE Sahara one large inland sea surrounded by plains • 5000 B.C.E. development of Sahara Desert as desertification increased • Increasing desertification forced mass popular migration to water • Nile shifts to east; formation of large lakes in Central Africa that feed Nile

3. REGIONS IN AFRICA

4. AFRICAN CLIMATE ZONES

5. AFRICAN LANGUAGE FAMILIES

6. FIRST AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS • Egyptian History, c. 3100 BCE to 525 BCE • Pre-history dominated by small city-states along Nile • Old Kingdom • Menes- Narmer united Upper/Lower Egypt • Pyramid building era; pharaohs considered divine • Middle Kingdom • 2nd Illness saw Semitic invasion: Hyksos • New Kingdom saw rise of empire • 3rd Illness saw invasions by Kush, Assyrians, Sea Peoples • Eventually ruled by Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines • Kush in Upper Nile assimilates Egyptian culture • Ethnically were Black Africans • Adopted many of Egyptian practices: religion, architecture • Ruled Egypt as 26th Dynasty • Famous for iron, gold trade • Remained independent until Muslim conquests

7. ANCIENT EGYPT

8. MAP OF ANCIENT KUSH

9. ANCIENT MAP OF AFRICA

10. NILE SOCIETIES • Urban elites (2%) ruled over rural masses • Social Classes • Pharaoh (ruler and his immediate family) • Officials (Advisors, generals, soldiers, priests) • Merchants and artisans • Peasants • Slaves • Patriarchal societies with a twist • Women were occasionally rulers • Women had rights, could own lands • Were “less” than males but not oppressed

11. RELIGIONS OF THE NILE • Polytheism • Extremely complex pantheon of gods • Deification of nature • Extremely powerful, influential priesthood with great wealth • Conflict of good, evil • Humans judged for their actions • Cult of Osiris • Strong belief in afterlife, accountability for actions • Mummification was but one aspect of this • Regenerative cycle of Osiris/Ra-Re/Horus • Ahkenaton and Monotheism • Amenhotep believed there was only one God • Ended polytheism, opposed by priests; was assassinated • Nubian Beliefs • Adopted many Egyptian beliefs • Major focus on the sun and moon

12. WRITING • Early Nile Writing • Hieroglyphics (Pictographs) • Merotic Writing in Nubia • Ge’ez Writing in Axum • Education • Scribes had influence • Often attached to court or temples • Services rented out • Scribes could advance socially • Sub-Saharan Writing • Lacked alphabet, books • Lack due to termites, lack of durable medium • Developed oral traditional, tribal memories • West African griots • Memorized history by mneumonic devices • Kept all records for tribes, rulers • Islam brought first alphabet to Sub-Saharan Africa

13. ECONOMICS OF NILE • Economic Specialization and Trade • Bronze Age arose around 17th century B.C.E. • Iron Age begins around 1,000 B.C. • Transportation • Largely waterborne; little need for roads • Out of Nile Valley, camels and horses were common • Trade • Egypt was largely self-sufficient, autarkic • Net exporter of grains, foodstuffs, luxuries, paper, medicines • Most trade was based on luxury products • Papyrus, paper, medicines, herbs, finished products especially silver • Imports tended to be wood, gold, finished products • Kush-Meroe specialized in iron, gold workings • Trade Routes • Up Nile to Kush-Meroe • Across Sinai to Fertile Cresent • Down Red Sea to East Africa, Southern Arabia • Across Mediterranean to Greece, Phoenicia • Little contact with interior of Africa

14. THE NOK CULTURE • Discovered 1928 in Northern Nigeria • Was it a civilization or advanced culture? • Flourished 900 BCE to 200 CE on Niger-Benue River • Clearly first Sub-Saharan civilization/culture • Precursor of Bantu, West African forest peoples • Knowledge is based on archeology • Iron makers and sculptors • Animals and humans made from fired clay • Figures of animals, peoples including leaders • Seem to have been pastoralists, farmers • Could smelt iron • Have found iron tools, weapons; probably also used wood • Seemed to have skipped copper, bronze ages • Indigenous or borrowed from North Africa, Nile River?

15. GHANA: 1ST SUB-SAHARAN CIVILIZATION • Camels • Camels came to Egypt from Arabia, 7th century B.C.E. • Romans introduced them to North Africa, patrolled desert • After 500 C.E. camels replaced horses, donkeys as transport animals • Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the Sahara • Islamic merchants crossed the desert to trade in West Africa • Established relations with sub-Saharan West Africa by 8th century • The kingdom of Ghana • Kings maintained a large army of two hundred thousand warriors • A principal state of west Africa, not related to modern state of Ghana • Became the most important commercial site in west Africa • Controlled gold mines, exchanged it with nomads for salt • Provided gold, ivory, and slaves • Wanted horses, cloth, manufactured goods • Koumbi-Saleh • Capital city • Thriving commercial center

16. ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN AFRICA • Islam in Africa • North Africa • Arab armies conquered region by early 8th Century; pushed up Nile • Mass conversions of local inhabitants due to tax incentives • West Africa • Introduced by Trans-Saharan Trade route • Merchants were greatest contact with Islam • Local rulers, elites converted by 10th century • Gave elites control of trade, many benefits • Allowed people to observe traditional beliefs • Nomadic Berbers in North Africa • Berbers and Arabs were bitter rivals • Arabs settled coastlands, cities • Berbers lived in deserts, mountains • Berbers became puritanical Muslim, Shia • Berber fanatics invaded Ghana, Morocco • Ghana weakened, fell 10th century CE • Elite religion vs. common practices • Most people remained polytheists especially outside of cities, towns • Produced syncretic blend such as accommodation of African gender norms • After conversion by elites, old beliefs remained; part of inherited traditions • Religion introduced writing, literary traditions

17. KINGDOM OF MALI • Mandike Peoples • Ghana was established by Mandika • After fall of Ghana, Mandika established many small states • Most people were not Muslims but merchants were • Sundiata • After Ghana dissolved, political leadership shifted to Mali empire, a Mandika state • The lion prince Sundiata (reigned 1230-55) built the Mali empire • Ruling elites, families converted to Islam after his death • The Mali empire and trade • Controlled gold, salt; taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa • Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa • Besides Niani, many prosperous cities on caravan routes • Mansa Musa • Sundiata's grand nephew, reigned from 1312 to 1337 • Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325 • Gargantuan caravan of thousand soldiers and attendants • Gold devalued 25% in Cairo during his visit • Mansa Musa and Islam • Upon return to Mali, built mosques • Sent students to study with Islamic scholars in North Africa • Established Islamic schools in Mali • The decline of Mali • Factions crippled the central government • Rise of province of Gao as rival to Mali • Military pressures from neighboring kingdoms, desert nomads

18. SONGHAI EMPIRE • Origins • Sorko fishermen of Niger became merchants • Joined Gao state (part of Malian Empire) • Mali could never collect taxes from Gao • Rise • Sonni Ali the Great build cavalry, war fleet • Disputed Mali, conquer Timbuktu • Anti-Muslim: saw them as a threat • Zenith • Askia Muhammad seized power after Sonni’s death • Devout Muslim, promoted Islam; launched jihads • Visited Cairo, Mecca; promoted Songhai to Muslims • Declared Caliph of the Sudan • Built centralized state using Muslim jurists as advisors • Tradition and Trade • Maintained tribal rituals of sacred drum, sacred fire, dress • Privileged caste craftsmen; slaves important in agriculture • Traded kola nuts, gold, slaves for horses, salt, luxuries, finished goods • Fall • Civil war erupted in 16th century • Demographic Changes • Drought, desertification hurt economy • Diseases spread • Moroccan Empire invades and destroys state in order to control gold trade

19. KANEM-BORNU • Origins • Situated north east of Lake Chad. • In 11th century, Sefawa dynasty was established • Shift in lifestyle • From entirely nomadic to pastoralist way of life with agriculture • State became more centralized with capital at Njimi; maintained large cavalry • Islam and Trade • Kanem converted to Islam under Hu or Hawwa (1067-71). • Faith was not widely embraced until the 13th century. • Muslim traders played a role in bringing Islam to Kanem • Wealth of Kanem derived from ability of rulers to control trade • Main exports were ostrich feathers, slaves and ivory; imported horses, luxuries • Exports were crucial to their power, ability to dominate neighbors • A Change • Combination of overgrazing, dynastic uncertainties, attacks from neighbors • Rulers of Kanem to move to Borno, state now referred to as Kanem-Borno • New contacts with Hausa of Nigeria; capital becomes center of knowledge, trade • Army modernized by trade with Muslim, Turks: acquired firearms • Decline was long, gradual and peaceful: fell in the 19th century

20. THE BANTU • The Bantu peoples • Originated in the region around modern Nigeria/Cameroon • Influenced by Nok iron making, herding, agriculture • Population pressure drove migrations, 2000 BCE – 700 BCE • Two major movements: to south and to east and then south • Languages split into about 500 distinct but related tongues • Bantu agriculture and herding • Early Bantu relied on agriculture – slash-burn, shifting • Pastoralists, semi-nomadic due to agriculture, cattle • Iron metallurgy • Iron appeared during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E. • Iron made agriculture more productive • Expanded divisions of labor, specialization in Bantu societies • Population Pressures • Iron technologies produced population upsurge • Large populations forced migration of Bantu

21. THE BANTU MIGRATION • The Bantu Migration • Population pressure led to migration, c. 2000 B.C.E. • Movement to South, along Southeast and Southwest coasts • Languages differentiated into about 500 distinct but related tongues • Occupied most of sub-Saharan (except West) Africa by 1000 C.E. • Split into groups as they migrated: Eastern, Central, Southern • Bantu spread iron, herding technologies as they moved • Bananas • Between 300/500 C.E., Malay seafarers reached Africa • Settled in Madagascar, visited East African coast • Brought with them pigs, taro, and banana cultivation • Bananas became well-established in Africa by 500 C.E. • Bantu learned to cultivate bananas from Malagasy • Bananas caused second population spurt, migration surge • Reached South Africa in 16th century CE • Population growth • 3.5 million people by 400 B.C.E. • 11 million by the beginning of the millennium • 17 million by 800 C.E. • 22 million by 1000 C.E.

22. MAP OF THE BANTU MIGRATIONS

23. BANTU LANGUAGES

24. BANTU POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS • Stateless societies • Early Bantu societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy • Societies governed through family and kinship groups • Village council, consisted of male family heads • Chief of a village was from the most prominent family heads • A group of villages constituted a district • Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs • Chiefdoms • Population growth strained resources, increased conflict • Some communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E. • Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority • Some chiefs conquered their neighbors • Kingdom of Kongo • Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E. • Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E. • One of the principalities conquered neighbors, built kingdom of Kongo • Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system • Provided effective organization until the mid-17th century

25. SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS • Diversity of African societies in Sub-Saharan Africa • Complex societies developed into kingdoms, empires, and city-states • Coexisted with small states and stateless societies • Lineages consisted of all members descended from a common ancestor • Kinship groups of stateless societies • Extended families and clans as social and economic organizations • Communities claimed rights to land, no private property • Village council allocated land to clan members • Sex and gender relations • Men undertook heavy labor, herding, • Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores, farming • Men monopolized public authority but women could be leaders • Women enjoyed high honor as the source of life • Many societies were matrilineal; aristocratic women influenced public affairs • Women merchants commonly traded at markets • Sometimes women organized all-female military units • Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa • Age grades • Publicly recognized "age grades" or "age sets" • Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age grades • Coming of age ceremonies and secret societies restricted by age, gender

26. SLAVERY • Slavery in Africa • Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals • Kept for local use or sold in slave markets • Often used as domestic laborers especially agricultural workers • Generally not a social stigma attached • Slaves could receive freedom, become part of family, tribe • Children born to slaves were not slaves • Slave trading • Slave trade increased after the 11th century CE • Primary markets • Across Sahara to North Africa and Egypt and ultimately Arabia • Out of East Africa to Arabia and Middle East • In some years, 10 to 12 thousand slaves shipped out of Africa • Males preferred, could also act as carriers of trade goods • 10 million slaves transported by Islamic trade between 750/1500 • Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe • Original slaves preferred in Muslim world were Caucasian Slavs • Word “slave” comes from Slav • Slave raids against smaller states, stateless societies • Muslims could not be used as slaves (Quran) yet often ignored

27. EARLY AFRICAN RELIGION • Creator god • Recognized by almost all African peoples • Created the earth and humankind, source of world order • Lesser gods and spirits • Often associated with natural features, forces in world • Participated actively in the workings of the world • Believed in ancestors' souls influencing material world • Diviners • Mediated between humanity and supernatural beings • Called shamans and inappropriately “witch doctors” • Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune • Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems • African religion was not theological, but practical • Religion to placate the gods, ask for assistance, cures, fertility • Public celebrations inc. dancing, singing formed community • Genders honored different deities, had separate ceremonies

28. EARLY EAST AFRICAN HISTORY • Early visitors to east Africa • Egyptians visited, traded with area • Famous expedition of Hatshepshut to Punt • Indian, Persian visited after 500 B.C.E. • Greeks, Romans called area Azania • Malays established colonies on Madagascar • Kingdom of Axum (Aksum) • Sabeans of Yemen created Axum • Arose in highlands of Ethiopia • Trading state across Bab el Mandeb straits • Tribute empire on land; trade gold, frankincense, myrrh, food, ivory • Built stone structures, issued own coins • Eventually became Monophysite Christian • King Ezana converted and court followed in early 4th century • Developed Ge’ez language, writing in association with Christianity • Maintained strong contacts with Egypt • Traded with Romans, Byzantines, Persians, Indians, Arabs • By 2nd century: Bantus populated much of East Africa • By 7th century: Arab merchants begin to visit • By 8th century: Muslim armies, merchants push up Nile

29. THE SWAHILI CITY-STATES • Intermarriage of the Bantu and the Arab produced Swahili • An Arabic term, meaning "coasters" • Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala • Swahili is a Bantu language mixed with Arabic • The Swahili city-states • Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports • Developed into city-states ruled by kings, 11th-12th centuries • Controlled trade from interior: slaves, gold, ivory, spices • Exchanged goods for finished goods, cloths, dyes, luxuries • Craftsmen, artisans, clerks were Muslims • Slaves used for domestic, agriculture • Zanzibar clove plantations needed slaves • Kilwa • One of the busiest city-states • Multistory stone buildings, mosques, schools • Issued copper coins from the 13th century • By 15th century, exported ton of gold per year • Merchants from India, China, Arabia visited • Islam in East Africa • Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith • Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants • Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim rulers

30. ZIMBABWE • South Central Africa • Wooded and grass savannahs • Rich in minerals especially copper, gold • Bantu herders, ironsmiths found it wonderful • Zimbabwe • A powerful kingdom of Central Africa arose in 13th century • From 5th centuries C.E. built wooden residences known as zimbabwe • By the 9th century began to build stone zimbabwe • Magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe, the 12th century • 18,000 people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late 15th century • Kings and wealth • Organized flow of gold, ivory • Trade include slaves • Counted wealth in cattle, too • Traded with Swahili city-states

31. CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA • Early Christianity in North Africa • Christianity reached Africa during 1st century C.E. • St. Mark converted Egypt, spread up Nile • Romans introduced faith to North Africa • North Africa was home to many heresies • Arianism = Jesus was human • Monophysites = Jesus had one nature • Donatists = Apostate Christians could not return • Vandal German settlers were Arian Christians • Byzantine conquest returned north to Catholics • Region had no influence on sub-Saharan African • Monophysite Christianity along the Nile • Believed Christ had one nature, largely divine • Persecuted; declared heresy by Chalcedon • The Christian kingdoms of Nubia and Axum • 1st Christian kingdom, 4th century C.E., • Nubians of Kush also became Christian • Both adopted Monophysite form of Christianity • Ethiopian and Nubian Christianity • Had little contact with Christians of other lands • Shared basic Christian theology/rituals, developed own features • Isolated, attacked by Islam

32. MOVEMENT IN AFRICAN HISTORY

33. ECONOMIC REGIONS OF AFRICA

34. HISTORIC AFRICA IN REVIEW