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Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007. Humanistic Theory as Third Force. 1st
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1. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Theories of Personality Louis Hoffman, PhD
Colorado School of Professional Psychology
Lecture 5 - Humanistic & Existential Psychology
2. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanistic Theory as Third Force 1st – Behaviorism
2nd – Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic
The order is sometimes reversed for the 1st two forces
3rd- Humanistic
Also sometimes called “phenomenological” to be more inclusive
3. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 What Theories are Humanistic The Humanistic or Phenomenological Theories
Humanistic Gestalt
Client-centered Experiential (not all)
Focusing Transactional Analysis
Existential Reality Therapy (questionable)
4. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanism & Humanistic Psychology Humanism
Broader than humanistic psychology
Not just contained to psychology
Focuses on the study of being human
Focuses on human potential
Emphasis on protecting human rights & freedoms believed to be associated with expanding human potential
Defends ‘human dignity’ as understood by humanism
Humanistic Psychology
Most humanistic psychologist also identify as humanists
Less connected to promoting the humanism value system (at least in the psychotherapy context)
i.e., not all humanistic psychologists agree or participate with the broader humanism agenda
5. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 What Make a Theory Humanistic?? HP focuses on
The study of what it means to be human
A very existential idea with different emphasis
Positive view of human nature
Often less positive view of society
Human Potential
Expanding human potential
Freedom & human potential
A Trust in People or Human Nature
If obstacles removed, they will grow
Trusts people to guide & direct growth & healing
People should not be controlled, they should be free
By force, fear, manipulation, or rhetoric
6. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Self-Actualization This is a confusing topic!!
Partially, because there has been so much disagreement over time
Example: Maslow is criticized, at times, because he frequently changed his mind on what self-actualization was and how it was achieved
7. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Self Actualization ‘Trait’ v. State v. Process
Trait:
Once it’s achieved, you are there
Rarely do individuals achieving self-actualization regress back to a pre-actualized state
State:
This is a temporary state that you achieve
The more consistently an individual is in this state, the more self-actualized they are
No one achieve a full self-actualization
Process
Self-actualization is not something you achieve, it is a process
People may be self-actualizing, but are never self-actualized
8. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Self-Actualization Trait Self-Actualization
More popular early on, not very popular today
Few Humanistic Psychologists take this position today.
State & Process
These two can overlap or fit together a degree
Most Humanistic Psychologists today adhere to one of these two views or a mixture of them
However, in general, self-actualization is not all that popular of a theme anymore
9. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Self-Actualization The Buddha or Jesus Syndrome: Dangers of the Self-Actualization as an Acquired Trait
When S-A viewed as state to be sought, but achieved only by few, it becomes a source of discouragement
The myth of self-actualization may be more growth stunting than growth facilitating
10. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 The Self-Actualizing Tendency This receives more positive attention in contemporary humanistic psychology
Though different language often used
A natural drive toward growth
Many things inhibit this
Bad life experiences
Fear
Poor self-image or lack of self-confidence
Negative influences from society
Therapy tries to identify & remove such growth barriers
Allows for natural growth to occur
11. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Agency What is agency?
It refers to individuals acting as free being (agents) exercising their free will
This is contrasted with ‘the human as machine’ which is not acting as a free agent
Humans can, and do, function on both levels at times
12. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Agency People are as free as they become
The less free people are, the more they are bound by their biology and their environment
The more free they are, the more the ‘self-actualizing tendency’ guides personality
Therapists attempt to assist clients in becoming free agents
13. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanistic Psychology & Behaviorism Agency (free will) is a major split between behaviorists & humanistic psychologists – Was the Main Theme of Many of the Great Debates
Behaviorists
Generally (though not always) see people as not being free
Otherwise, see they typically free aspects of people as something unworthy of study
Note: Frequently does not apply to Cognitive Behaviorists
Humanistic Psychologists
Don’t discount the influences cited by the behaviorists
Rather, they say that they don’t completely determine behavior or personality
The more free a person becomes, the less their personality is determined by the behaviorist influences
However, they are never fully free from these influences
14. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanistic Psychology & Psychodynamic Psychology on Free Will Psychodynamic
Also account for behavior influences
Add to it the unconscious influences
Three main influences then: 1) biology, 2) behaviorism, & 3) unconscious
Early psychodynamic thinkers were more deterministic; later allowed more space for agency
Still error more toward determinism than humanistic
Humanistic Psychology
Don’t discount the unconscious (generally)
In addition to 3 influences cited above, emphasize agency or the free will as another major influence
15. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanistic Psychology & Free Will Otto Rank was really the first psychologist to take the will seriously
Unfortunately, not many listened
Rank’s influence on psychology in the US was quite limited until Ernest Becker ‘rediscovered’ his writing
With the neglect of Rank, Humanistic Psychology was the first US psychology to really take the will seriously
This influences many other theories including
Psychodynamic
Existential (which emerged after humanistic)
16. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 The Self Rogers emphasized that the self is in process
Stability is an illusion
That which appears consistent, can change
For some, it will likely change
We may be able to plot a likely trajectory
The Ideal Self
Who we’d like to be
Can be:
A ideal against which we measures ourselves (oppressive & stifling)
A goal which we constantly are in pursuit of (positive motivation)
17. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanistic Psychology & Relationships Desire for relationships & community is natural
The healthy individual seeks healthy relationships
The healthy individual seeks to make a positive contribution to the world
Healthy relationships facilitate growth
Congruent
Degree that experience, communication, & experience are consistent
Unconditional Positive Regard
Empathetic
Genuine
18. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Conditions of Worth (Rogers) Definition: Aspects of ourselves we believe need to be to have worth or value
These can distort thoughts, feelings, & experience
Example: ‘I must do or be like this in order to be loved or accepted’
Often not based on reality (i.e, you will still be loved & accepted!)
This perception causes distortions in how other people are experienced
Compare with transference
Similar, but can be more broad
19. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Subjectivity For humanistic thinkers, subjectivity is more important that objectivity
Subjective experience has greater influence on feelings, thoughts, & behaviors
Object reality often does not impact as greatly
Subjective experience is more important in:
Understanding the personality
Therapy: helping people heal
20. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Emotions Humanistic Psychology:
Views all emotions as an important part of the human experience
Historically has spend more time studying & considering the positive emotions
Also spent less time pathologizing the negative emotions
This was fleshed out more with the existentialists
21. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 From Humanistic to Existential Psychology The primary difference between humanistic & existential psychology is one of emphasis
Free Will
Both believe in free will; humanistic are more optimistic about the degree of freedom we can attain
People as basically good
Both believe that people have a basic goodness; existential balances this more with our potential for evil
22. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 From Humanistic to Existential Psychology Humanistic:
The study of what it means to be human
Existential:
The study of what it means to exist
Both are very broad
Is all psychology humanistic & existential then?
No, from these roots, general assumptions and values about what it means to be human have developed
Most Humanistic & Existential thinkers share these
23. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Humanistic/Existential Assumptions & Values People are basically good, but also have a potential for evil
People are free, but not absolutely free
A belief in human potential; an understanding of human limitation
A valuing of subjective experience
Not necessarily discarding the objective, though
Ties to qualitative research & phenomenology
The importance of experience in therapy
A focus on the importance of meaning
Human Dignity
All people have the right to be treated with respect and human dignity
24. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Psychology Is Existential Psychology Dead?
Existential Philosophy & Existential Psychology
Variations in Existential Psychology
Overview of Existential Psychology
25. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Is Existential Psychology Dead? No!
Its countercultural
Kirk Schneider
Existential Integrative Psychology
Humanistic & Gestalt Psychology
Existential-Therapy Web Site
www.existential-therapy.com
26. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Psychology & Existential Philosophy Perhaps more than any other theory, existential psychology finds its roots in existential philosophy
However, it is also distinction
Existential Philosophy –Less embodied & relational
Existential Psychology –More focus on embodiment & relationship
Existential Psychology more from Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger & Camus(more literature) than Sartre
27. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Variations in Existential Psychology Three Groupings:
Existential Cognitivists
A smattering of solution-focused individuals
Existential Pragmatists
Van Deurzen& Strasser
Existential-Humanists or Existential-Phenomenologicalists
The tradition of Rollo May
This will be our focus
* More on this in History & Systems
28. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Perspectives on Personality The concept of personality is useful, yet limited. One does not, from the standpoint of existentialism, so much possess a personality as embody an experience. Even as our diagnostic manuals and codes tend to reduce personality to readily observable constellations of symptoms or traits, conventional notions of psychological health lean heavily on presuppositions about normalcy that inadequately reflect the experience of flesh-and-blood lives ….(continued)
29. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Perspectives on Personality ….Normalcy, then, hardly the desired endgame for existentialists that it is for various other persuassions, tends to be seen as a failure in becoming, a stillbirth in the business of individuating from the crowd. Nietzsche’s fictional prophet Zarathustra laments the apparent death of modern-day heroes: “No shepherd and one herd! Everybody wants the same, everybody is the same; whoever feels different goes voluntary into a madhouse.” Nietzsche exuberantly describes the fanatical efforts of mortals simply to aspire to nothing more than the vaunted mean!
~ Mendelowitz & Schneider (in press), Existential psychotherapy, in Corsini & Wedding, Current Psychotherapies
~ Nietzsche quote from Thus Spoke Zarathustra
30. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Therapy and the Good Life The Good Life: The Ends Sought in Life
The Good Life is not:
The happy life (tragic happiness)
Conformity to culture, family, or religion
The Good Life is:
Free & Responsible
Self-Aware and Self-Honest
Genuine and Authentic Relationships
Passionate (not necessarily charismatic)
Comfortable with unknowing; open to change
A lived or experienced life
31. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Therapy & the Good Life By its definition of the good life, you can see that this is not the right fit for all clients!
This is not to say that existential therapy does not value happiness or comfort; these are just not the primary values
32. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Major Existential Themes Yalom’s terminology
4 Primary Themes or Givens:
1.Death
2.Freedom
3.Isolation
4.Meaninglessness
These can be understood as the basic driving factors of personality
33. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Finitude Two Levels of Death:
Literal:
The finality of death
Symbolic:
All human limitation
34. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Finitude Literal
All people fear death
May be different aspects of death that they fear:
Non-being or not existing
The unknown
The lack of control
The experience of dying
35. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Finitude Symbolic:
Two kinds:
Symbolic death
All endings symbolize death
We have many of these each year
Here the symbol is thought to point to death
Symbolizes finitude & human limitation
Here, death often is the symbol
Death is the ultimate limitation!
36. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Finitude Symbolizes finitude & human limitation
Many forms:
Limitations in control
Limitations in knowledge
Limitations in opportunities
Limitations in relationships
Limitations necessitated by choice
37. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Finitude Death & control are often tied
The more one cannot face their finitude or limitations, the more they seek
To control
or
Become despondent
38. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death Death is also seen as connected to anxiety
Some existentialists say, “All anxiety is death anxiety”
More realistic when death interpreted symbolically
39. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Psychological Health Ernest Becker
Book: The Denial of Death
Claims that the crisis of our culture today is that the avoidance & denial of death
This is our contemporary primary repression
Book: Escape from Evil
The denial of our limitations serve as the basis for evil
Trying to overcome our finiteness
Trying to deny our limitations
Trying to achieve a symbolic immortality
Compare Erikson’s: Generativityv. Stagnation
40. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Death & Psychological Health Death & Healthy
Narrow:
We cannot live in full awareness of death moment to moment without becoming neurotic
Broad:
Denying the reality of death is also neurotic
Healthy view:
To live in awareness of the reality of death, while using a healthy balance of the moment to moment threats
41. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Freedom, Responsibility, & Agency Paradox:
We both seek and free freedom
Freedom comes with responsible
If we are free (agents), then we are responsible
The attempt to be free without responsibility is, in itself, pathological
42. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Freedom, Responsibility, & Agency Heidegger & Thrownness
Heidegger more of a phenomenological philosopher who was very influential on existential thought
There are certain life situations beyond our control (i.e., that we are thrown into):
Our biology, parents, etc.
These will always influence us; maybe limiting us
They never fully determine us (only influence)
43. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Freedom, Responsibility, & Agency How free are we:
We are both free and controlled (i.e., Freedom & Destiny)
We can never be fully free
However, we can never be fully controlled or merely a product of our environment
“If you choose not to decide, you still have made a choice”
We are as free as we become (but there are always some limitations!)
44. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Freedom, Responsibility, & Agency Freedom, Responsibility, & Ethics
It is irresponsible, therefore unethical, not to be responsible
We can never be fully free, therefore, we can never be fully responsible
Implications for Ethics: It is irresponsible and therefore unethical not to seek to become more free
An imperative for insight oriented therapy?
See also Ethics & the Discovery of the Unconscious
45. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Freedom, Responsibility, & Agency The flight from freedom
People often flee from freedom in a variety of ways
Conformity
Denial of the free will
Focusing on the victim (controlled) aspects
The path of these resistance
Otto Rank: We are controlled by those things which influence us that we are not aware of
46. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Isolation Paradox:
We all seek relationship & intimacy, but we are always limited in how completely we achieve this
47. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Isolation Many things interfere with our attainment of satisfying relationship connections:
Human limitation
Fear of getting hurt
Fear of being known
False intimacy
Excessive independence
Poor measure of what is intimate or satisfying
48. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Isolation & Meaning
Meaning is the primary driving factor of life (next theme)
Relationships are the deepest satisfying form of meaning according to most existentialists:
Personal (with other people)
Spiritual
Animals
Nature
Societal (giving back)
49. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Isolation & Meaning Forms an Implicit Relational Ethics
Outcome measures:
Social concern
Healthy relationships
Personal, spiritual, animal
Connection with nature
50. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Meaninglessness Two existential camps:
Meaning is an illusion:
We are meaning seeking creatures, but there is no ultimate meaning
Examples: Sartre, Yalom
Meaning is achievable
Meaning is real:
We are meaning seeking creatures & can attain it
Examples: Frankl, Schneider, May, Kierkegaard
51. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Meaning Discovering v. Meaning Creating Existentialists generally agree that we are meaning seeking creatures
Differ on:
We are meaning discoverers
Meaning is inherent in the world, we can only find it
We are meaning creators
The world is inherently meaningless
The only meaning we achieve is what we create
52. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Meaning Discoverers Meaning Form v. Meaning Content
Form refers to basic meaning process that are empty of content
Content refers to something more specific
Most existentialists emphasize form more than content
Example:
Major Existential Themes
These are not universals in that they do not have specific content.
They are universal in questions or issues
Makes this more of a postmodern theory, thought mistaken for modern because of the existential givens
53. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Types of Meaning Different types of meaning can be differentiated:
False Meanings
Help us cope, but may also be detrimental
Transitory Meanings or Pseudo-meaning
Help us cope, may point toward or facilitate ultimate meaning
Ultimate Meaning
Life changing & sustaining meaning
General seen as having to have a relational and/or spiritual component to them
54. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Meaning & Relationship Meaning & Relationship tie all the themes together
These are not isolated themes
Rather general questions or givens that all people must face
55. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Healthy Living & the Givens Healthy Living involves:
Having faced the givens
Not overcoming, but live within the reality of…
Not denying
This leads to neurotic or psychotic tendencies
Integrating them into your life (see also Daimonic later)
56. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Emotions Emotions are seen as something to be embraced; not avoided
All emotions are healthy
All emotions have meaning
57. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Anxiety & Existence Differentiate between:
Existential Anxiety (Normal Anxiety)
The anxiety of being
Neurotic Anxiety
The anxiety of resisting being or not being
Inauthentic living
Over-repression of the existential givens
58. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Anxiety & Existence Both forms of anxiety are important for living, understanding, & therapy
They serves as:
A guide
A motivator
An energizer (libidinal aspect)
59. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 The Daimonic Compare Jung’s Shadow
Major Difference
Daimon is interpreted more broadly than the shadow
Definition: May stated the daimonic "is any natural function which has the power to take over the whole person”
Largely neglected aspect of May’s theory until Diamond’s Anger, Madness, & the Daimonic
60. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 The Daimonic The Daimon is very complex, generally involving several processes
It gains power through repression (that which we repress will find expression)
Some things which can fuel the daimon:
Emotions
The Existential Givens
Aspects of the Unconscious
Disavowed Aspects of Relationships
61. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 The Daimonic & Psychological Health Like the Shadow, the Daimon must be integrated into our personality or self for optimal psychological health
It cannot be disavowed
According to Diamond, repression of the daimon serves as the basis of psychopathology
62. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 The Daimonic & Creativity The daimonic is the primary source of creativity & libidinal energy
Turning daimonic into acts of beauty is the healthiest way to deal with it
Creative living –making a positive impact on the world
Artistic expression –various forms of art
Artistic relationships –relating authentically & genuinely
63. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Resistances & Defenses Existentialists tend to refers to ‘resistances’ more than defenses
These are also viewed more positively
In other words, resistances are seen as natural & healthy, by and large
Resistances are something that we should work with, not against
64. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Existential Health The healthy life is the life fully and authentically lived
Both joys & sorrows, happiness & suffering are embraced
Relationships seek the “I-Thou”level of intimacy
Involved with the world
Relating & impacting
The Daimon is integrated, not disavowed
Creative expression is sought & offered
Generally connected with the integrated daimon
It’s the medley of life fully lived that paints the beauty of
65. Copyright, Louis Hoffman, PhD, 2006-2007 Case Conceptualization Current Problem (stated subjectively; i.e., in the clients experience/perspective)
Objective/Givens and the Subjective Response to These:
Medical/Biological Issues
Personal History (can include transference & countertransference issues)
Culture
Developmental Issues
Resistances/Defenses (Generally stated in sympathetic terms)
Existential Issues
Death/Limitations
Freedom, Responsibility, & Agency
Relationship/Isolation (Genuineness/Authenticity & Existential Isolation)
Meaning
Emotions
Daimonic
Creativity/Spirituality
Religious/Spiritual Issues
Relationship Between Problems
Treatment Issues