Psychology as a science

1. Psychology as a science Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2. Announcements • For this week’s lab you need to download, print out, read, and bring to lab an article. • The article is: Strayer & Johnston (2001) • Class mallard page should work: • Your password: final 8 in soc followed by ‘p231’ (e.g., 1234p231)

3. The anatomy of a research article • The basic parts of a research article : • Title and authors - gives you a general idea of the topic and specifically who did it • Abstract - short summary of the article • States the issue, the methods, major variables of interest, the findings, and the conclusions • (in 120 words or less) • First contact • Shows up in PsycInfo • Gets skimmed before reading the article

4. The anatomy of a research article • Introduction - gives you the background that you need • What are the issues • What is/are the theory(ies) • What does the past research say • What the rationale for doing this research • What are the specific hypotheses • Reading checklist 1) What is the author's goal? 2) What are the hypotheses? 3) If you had designed the experiment, how would YOU have done it?

5. The anatomy of a research article • Method - tells the reader exactly what was done • Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the study. • Subsections: • Participants - who were the data collected from • Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study • Procedure - how the study was conducted, what the participants did

6. The anatomy of a research article • Reading checklist for Methods 1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect?

7. The anatomy of a research article • Results - gives a summary of the results and the statistical tests • Reading checklist 1) Did the author get unexpected results? 2 a) How does the author interpret the results? b) How would YOU interpret the results? c) What implications would YOU draw from these results?

8. The anatomy of a research article • Discussion - the interpretation and implications of the results • Reading checklist 1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data? b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions? • References - full citations of all work cited • Appendices - additional supplementary supporting material

9. Psychology as a science • Psychology’s goals are similar to the goals of the physical sciences (e.g., physics and chemistry) • Psychologists are concerned with the behavior of people (and animals) rather than the physical world.

10. Psychology as a science • How is psychology different from the physical sciences? • Human (and animal) behavior is typically much more variable than most physical systems. • Statistical control • Methodological control

11. Goals of psychology • Description of behavior • describe events, what changes what might affect change, what might be related to what, etc. • Prediction of behavior • given X what will likely happen • Control of behavior • for the purpose of interventions (e.g., how do we prevent violence in schools)

12. Goals of psychology • Causes of behavior • sometimes predictions aren’t enough, want to know how the X and the outcome are related • Explanation of behavior • a complete theory of the how’s and why’s

13. Properties of a good theory

14. Properties of a good theory • Organizes, Explains, & Accounts for the data • If there are data relevant to your theory, that your theory can’t account for, then your theory is wrong • either adapt the theory to account for the new data • develop a new theory that incorporates the new data

15. Properties of a good theory • Organizes, Explains, & Accounts for the data • Testable/Falsifiable – can’t prove a theory, can only reject it “No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.”

16. Omnipotent Theory • Beware theories that are so powerful/ general/ flexible that they can account for everything. These are not testable • Karl Popper claimed that Freudian theory isn’t falsifiable • If display behavior that clearly has sexual or aggressive motivation, then it is taken as proof of the presence of the Id • If such behavior isn’t displayed, then you have a “reaction formation” against it. So the Id is there, you just can’t see evidence of it. • So, as stated, the theory is too powerful and can’t be tested and so it isn’t useful

17. Properties of a good theory • Organizes, Explains, & Accounts for the data • Testable/Falsifiable • Generalizable – not too restrictive • the theory should be broad enough to be of use, the more data that it can account for the better • the line between generalizability and falsifiability is a fuzzy one.

18. Properties of a good theory • Organizes, Explains, & Accounts for the data • Testable/Falsifiable • Generalizable • Parsimony (Occam’s razor) • for two or more theories that can account for the same data, the simplest theory is the favored one “Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not any simpler.”

19. Properties of a good theory • Organizes, Explains, & Accounts for the data • Testable/Falsifiable • Generalizable • Parsimony • Makes predictions, generates new knowledge • a good theory will account for the data, but also make predictions about things that the theory wasn’t explicitly designed to account for

20. Properties of a good theory • Organizes, Explains, & Accounts for the data • Testable/Falsifiable • Generalizable • Parsimony • Makes predictions, generates new knowledge • Precision • makes quantifiable predictions

21. Using theories in research • Induction – reasoning from the data to the general theory • So in complete practice this approach probably needs a new theory (or an adapted one) for every new data set • Deduction – reasoning from a general theory to the data • Here the theory (if it is a “good” one) is sometimes viewed as more critical than the data. It also will guide the choice of what experiments get done

22. The chicken or the egg? Theory • Typically good research programs use both induction deduction Data

23. Research Approaches • Basic (pure) research - tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior • e.g., McBride & Dosher (1999). Forgetting rates are comparable in conscious and automatic memory: A process-dissociation study. • Applied research – Theory sometimes takes a backseat. This is research designed to solve a particular problem • e.g., Jin (2001). Advertising and the news: Does advertising campaign information in news stories improve the memory of subsequent advertisements?

24. Basic research Applied research Research Approaches • Probably the best way to think of this is as a continuum rather as two separate categories. • Often applied work may bring up some interesting basic theoretical questions, and basic theory often informs applied work.

25. Next time • Basic Methodologies • Read Chapters 6 and 7