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Social Psychology

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Social Psychology

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    1. Social Psychology Part 3: Social Relations Why do we dislike, even despise one another? Chapter 9: Prejudice Chapter 10: Aggression Why do we like or love particular people? Chapter 11: Attraction and Intimacy Chapter 12: Helping How do social conflicts develop and how can they be resolved? Chapter 13: Conflict and Peacemaking

    2. Social Psychology Chapter 9: Prejudice: Disliking Others

    3. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Defining Prejudice Prejudice: A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members. Prejudice is an attitude and therefore has an affective component, a behavior tendency, and a cognitive component. A prejudiced person might dislike those different from themselves, behave in a discriminatory manner, and believe they are ignorant and dangerous.

    4. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Defining Prejudice Stereotype: A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information. Common stereotypes British people are stuffy. American people are outgoing. Professors are absent-minded. Stereotypes can be accurate or inaccurate.

    5. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Defining Prejudice Discrimination: Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members. Racism: (1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes, beliefs, and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race. Courtesy Stigma: The tendency for individuals who are associated with stigmatized people to get negative evaluations from others.

    6. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Defining Prejudice Sexism: (1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex. Ethnocentrism: An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a cultural group other than one’s own. Encompasses belief that one’s own culture is best.

    7. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Prejudice: Subtle and Overt We have a dual attitude system We can have different explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) attitudes toward the same target. We may retain a childhood fear or dislike or something or someone (implicit) while expressing how much we like or admire that person or thing (explicit). Explicit attitudes change as a function of education while implicit attitudes tend to linger.

    8. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Racial Prejudice Is Racial Prejudice Disappearing? White Americans felt that 44% of their peers are high in prejudice, but only 14% of these felt that they were high in prejudice. -Figure 9-1: Changing Racial Attitudes of White Americans from 1958 to 2003. -When asked about prejudice in America today, White people compare the current situation to the past and conclude that we have come so far, Black people compare the current situation to some ideal world they would like to see and conclude that we are not there.-Figure 9-1: Changing Racial Attitudes of White Americans from 1958 to 2003. -When asked about prejudice in America today, White people compare the current situation to the past and conclude that we have come so far, Black people compare the current situation to some ideal world they would like to see and conclude that we are not there.

    9. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Racial Prejudice Subtle Forms of Prejudice Blatant prejudice is disappearing If asked if you agree with the following, “There should be separate sections for Negroes on streetcars and buses.”, you would find the very question bizarre to hear. Subtle prejudice is not disappearing Personal space

    10. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Racial Prejudice Subtle Forms of Prejudice Subtle prejudice is not disappearing 5000 resumes sent out in response to 1300 employment ads. White names (Emily, Greg) received one callback for each 10 resumes. Black names (Lakisha, Jamal) received one callback for each 15 resumes. Participants were given a poorly written essay and asked to evaluate it. If they believed the author was white it was rated poorer than if they believed the author was black. Lower standards seem to have been used when it was believed it was a black author.

    11. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Racial Prejudice Automatic Prejudice -Automatic prejudice. When Joshua Correll and his colleagues invited people to react quickly (decide to “shoot” or “not shoot”) to people holding either a gun or a harmless object, race influenced perceptions and reactions. -Figure 9-2: Facing Prejudice. Where does the anger disappear? Kurt Hugenberg and Galen Boldenhausen showed university students a movie of faces morphing from angry to happy. Those who had scored as most prejudiced (on an implicit racial attitudes test) perceived anger lingering more in ambiguous Black and White faces.-Automatic prejudice. When Joshua Correll and his colleagues invited people to react quickly (decide to “shoot” or “not shoot”) to people holding either a gun or a harmless object, race influenced perceptions and reactions. -Figure 9-2: Facing Prejudice. Where does the anger disappear? Kurt Hugenberg and Galen Boldenhausen showed university students a movie of faces morphing from angry to happy. Those who had scored as most prejudiced (on an implicit racial attitudes test) perceived anger lingering more in ambiguous Black and White faces.

    12. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Racial Prejudice Subtle Forms of Prejudice Prejudice, particularly subtle forms, seems to be biologically rooted. “…reflexive detection of differences is an essential aspect of how we learn through pattern recognition. For example, the brain contains primary modules for distinguishing colors. These neural systems operate outside of awareness. One cannot choose not to see a color difference. Even at a young age, such differences contribute to our worldview. According to studies by University of Michigan psychologist Lawrence Hirschfeld, 3-year-old children already attribute significance to skin color and appear to believe that race is the most important physical characteristic in determining what sort of person one is.” “Neuroscience is now providing tantalizing hints as to how these tendencies might occur. In 2000, two fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) studies allowed the first visualizations of the underlying neuroanatomy of prejudice. In one study, Allan Hart, an Amherst social psychologist, found that when white and black subjects were given brief subliminal glimpses of faces of the other race, both showed increased activity in the amygdala, a small set of nuclei within the medial temporal lobes, believed to be responsible for processing the emotional significance of a stimulus.”

    13. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Gender Prejudice Gender Stereotypes Gender stereotypes are stronger than racial stereotypes. Men and women tend to believe them about equally. 22% of men thought that the sexes are equally emotional, women responded the same. These stereotypes sometimes reflect reality, other times they don’t. The presence of persistent and stable stereotypes leads some evolutionary psychologists to believe they reflect innate reality.

    14. What is the Nature and Power of Prejudice? Gender Prejudice Gender Discrimination 1968, Women given short article and told to judge its quality Told author was male (John T. McKay) or female (Joan T. McKay) Articles rated lower if a woman author 1980, Replication of the study found no differences Parents announce the birth of their baby boys with more pride, but they announce the birth of their baby girls with more happiness. -Obviously, issues of gender discrimination in America and Western countries does not reflect the rest of the world. -2/3 of the world’s unschooled children are girls. -Around the world, due to ultrasound, birth rates for boys are much higher than for girls.-Obviously, issues of gender discrimination in America and Western countries does not reflect the rest of the world. -2/3 of the world’s unschooled children are girls. -Around the world, due to ultrasound, birth rates for boys are much higher than for girls.

    15. What are the Social Sources of Prejudice? Social Inequalities: Unequal Status and Prejudice Unequal status breeds prejudice. Rich people view poor people as lazy, irresponsible, and lacking ambition, the traits which might justify the inequality. If you know the economic relationship between two groups, you can predict the intergroup attitudes.

    16. What are the Social Sources of Prejudice? Social Inequalities: Unequal Status and Prejudice Unequal status breeds prejudice. Social Dominance Orientation: A motivation to have one’s group dominate other social groups. They want their social group to have high status. People with a high social-dominance orientation likely to go into fields such as business, politics, or law.

    17. What are the Social Sources of Prejudice? Socialization The Authoritarian Personality Ethnocentric: Believing in the superiority of one’s own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups. People expressing anti-Semitic attitudes also prejudiced against other groups. Authoritarian Personality: A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those of lower status. Particularly prone to engage in prejudice and stereotyping.

    18. What are the Social Sources of Prejudice? Socialization Religion and Prejudice Leaders often evoke religion to state that God wants the world to be the way it is. This justifies inequalities Church members express more racial prejudice than nonmembers. Those professing traditional or fundamental Christian beliefs express more prejudice than those professing more progressive beliefs. Be careful, these findings are correlational.

    19. What are the Motivational Sources of Prejudice? Frustration and Aggression: The Scapegoat Theory Pain and frustration (the blocking of a goal), often lead to aggression. When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, we often redirect our hostility. Between 1882 and 1930, lynchings in south were highest when cotton prices were lowest. Competition for scarce resources is an important source of frustration. Realistic Group Conflict Theory: The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources. Opposition to immigration in Canada tends to rise and fall with unemployment rates.

    20. What are the Motivational Sources of Prejudice? Social Identity: Feeling Superior to Others Humans are a group bound species. Our ancestral heritage prepared us to live in groups. We define ourselves by our groups. Social Identity: The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

    21. What are the Motivational Sources of Prejudice? Social Identity Theory Social Identity Theory: We categorize people (ourselves included), we identify ourselves with certain groups, and we compare our group to other groups. Ingroup: “Us”—a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity. Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one’s own group. Outgroup: “Them”—a group that people perceive as distinctly different from or apart from their ingroup. -If children are asked, “which are better, the children at your school or the children at school X?”, children almost always pick their own school. -Basking in reflected glory. After Jamaican-Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson won the Olympic 100-meter race, Canadian media described this victory by a “Canadian.” After Johnson’s gold medal was taken away because of steroid use, Canadian media then emphasized his “Jamaican” identity. -If children are asked, “which are better, the children at your school or the children at school X?”, children almost always pick their own school. -Basking in reflected glory. After Jamaican-Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson won the Olympic 100-meter race, Canadian media described this victory by a “Canadian.” After Johnson’s gold medal was taken away because of steroid use, Canadian media then emphasized his “Jamaican” identity.

    22. What are the Motivational Sources of Prejudice? Social Identity Those whose self-image is low tend to be more prejudiced. Personal identity and social identity together feed self-esteem. -Figure 9-3: Personal identity and social identity together feed self-esteem.-Figure 9-3: Personal identity and social identity together feed self-esteem.

    23. What are the Cognitive Sources of Prejudice? Categorization: Classifying People into Groups Spontaneous Categorization We simplify our environment by categorizing things. Once a person or object is categorized as a member of a group, it begins to take on the characteristics of that group in our minds (stereotypes). Especially true if we are busy, tired, preoccupied, emotionally aroused, or young. -Figure 9-5: Racial Categorization. Quickly: What race is this person? Less prejudiced people responded more quickly, with less apparent concern with possibly misclassifying someone.-Figure 9-5: Racial Categorization. Quickly: What race is this person? Less prejudiced people responded more quickly, with less apparent concern with possibly misclassifying someone.

    24. Cognitive Sources of Prejudice

    25. What are the Cognitive Sources of Prejudice? Categorization: Classifying People into Groups Perceived Similarities and Differences Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another that are ingroup members. Thus “they are alike; we are diverse.” Own-Race Bias: The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race. -Figure 9-6: The Own-Race Bias. White subjects more accurately recognize the faces of Whites than of Blacks; Black subjects more accurately recognize the faces of Blacks than of Whites.-Figure 9-6: The Own-Race Bias. White subjects more accurately recognize the faces of Whites than of Blacks; Black subjects more accurately recognize the faces of Blacks than of Whites.

    26. What are the Cognitive Sources of Prejudice? Distinctiveness: Perceiving People Who Stand Out Distinctive People A distinct person in a group is perceived as having exaggerated good and bad qualities. Stigma Consciousness: A person’s expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination. -Self-consciousness about being different affects how we interpret others’ behavior.-Self-consciousness about being different affects how we interpret others’ behavior.

    27. What are the Cognitive Sources of Prejudice? Attribution: Is it a Just World? Group-Serving Bias Group-Serving Bias: Explaining away outgroup members’ positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one’s own group). The member of our group failed to contribute because he needs every penny to support his family. The member of the other group failed to contribute because she’s cheap and selfish.

    28. What are the Cognitive Sources of Prejudice? Attribution: Is it a Just World? The Just-World Phenomenon Just-World Phenomenon: The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Cosmic karma “What goes around comes around” Merely observing another innocent person being victimized is enough to make the victim seem like a bad person.

    29. What are the Consequences of Prejudice? Self-Perpetuating Stereotypes Once we categorize, we come to expect stereotypes of the person or object. However, our expectations influence our memories and create our realities. If we expect some to be unpleasant, we will treat them that way and they will respond accordingly. Self fulfilling prophesy Subtyping: Accommodating individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by thinking of them as “exceptions to the rule.” Subgrouping: Accommodating individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group.

    30. We sometimes expect the stereotypes out of ourselves as well. Oppositional Identity: Minority group members tend to behave in a way they think the members of their group are supposed to behave and judge members of their group by these standards. Ogbu suggests that African American students do not have the academic success of other minority groups or White students due in part to their socio-historical experience in the U.S. During slavery, individuals of African descent were involuntary minorities who were placed into a subordinate "caste" system in society. A ceiling was put in place that denied African Americans access to upward social mobility; therefore, many developed a belief system and coping mechanisms that discounted formal education as a tool for social mobility (Ogbu, 1991). For decades many non-immigrant (involuntary) African American adults have been denied jobs and placed into subordinate positions where they developed coping mechanisms in order to make sense of the situation (Ogbu, 1991).

    31. What are the Consequences of Prejudice? Stereotype Threat Stereotype Threat: A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one’s reputation into one’s self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects. Oppositional Identity: Minority group members tend to behave in a way they think the members of their group are supposed to behave and judge members of their group by these standards. -Figure 9-9: Stereotype Vulnerability and Women’s Math Performance. Steven Spencer, Claude Steel, and Diane Quinn (1999) gave equally capable men and women a difficult math test. When participants were led to believe there were gender differences on the test, women scored lower than men. When the threat of confirming the stereotype was removed (when gender differences were not expected), women did just as well as men.-Figure 9-9: Stereotype Vulnerability and Women’s Math Performance. Steven Spencer, Claude Steel, and Diane Quinn (1999) gave equally capable men and women a difficult math test. When participants were led to believe there were gender differences on the test, women scored lower than men. When the threat of confirming the stereotype was removed (when gender differences were not expected), women did just as well as men.

    32. What are the Consequences of Prejudice? Stereotype Threat “Math class is tough!” “Teen Talk” Barbie -Figure 9-10: Stereotype Threat. Threat from facing a negative stereotype can produce performance deficits and disidentification.-Figure 9-10: Stereotype Threat. Threat from facing a negative stereotype can produce performance deficits and disidentification.

    33. Reducing Prejudice Persuasive Communication Education Contact Hypothesis: Under certain conditions, contact between antagonistic groups will reduce prejudice. Requirements: 1. Equal status contact 2. Sustained close contact 3. Intergroup cooperation 4. Social norms favor equality 5. Friendship potential

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