Building a new nation

1. To what extent were changes in Japanese society between 1868 and 1889 reflected in the Meiji Constitution? Building a new nation Assessment of the achievements of the Meiji era

2. Charter Oath 1868 • Put into place what would be the guding features of the new policies • Greater representation of the people • Reduction of class distinctions

4. Socio Economic Changes In Nara style politics land owned by the Emperor Daimyo of Choshu, Satsuma , Tosa and Hizen persuaded by SatCho to return territories Prefectures created : 72 later reduced to 48 Why did the Daimyo accept? Financial Compensation including debts and stipends to the Samurai Moral pressure Intimidation Land reforms followed by financial reform Introduction by Matsukata Masayoshi of the fixed land tax This guaranteed a fixed income for the government Ownership of land confirmed with the person who traditionally paid tax on the harvest from it In turn this raised the taxes, poorer farmers in bad years mortagaged or sold off their lands to pay taxes Led to revolts and rebellions by farmers objection to ‘blood tax’ and the new land tax and also increased urban migration

5. Socio economic changes 2 • Reform of class structure Kazoku ( kozuku), Shizoku, Sotsu Heimin • Equality of classes before the law • Removal of restrictions on occupation • Gradual but effective end of feudalism • Conscription open to all • Samurai payments stopped and last stipend in 1876 • According to Hatori Edict Samurai forbidden to carry two swords • Samurai to adopt western style uniforms

6. Westernization • Elimination of Saigo removed the last barriers to an effective programme • Watch words and slogans • Oitsuke Oiskose catch up and overtake • Westernization in all walks of life Education Culture Transport and communications Demographic terms… urban migration and sprawl Changes in thought patterns as reflected in literature Influences of Social Darwinism

7. Education • Parallel to military reform came mass education • However, Westernization created its own problems • The government was increasingly concerned by the self help philosophy of the 1870’s • It wanted to control the people or else it would weaken the country and make it vulnerable to foreign powers • Appeal to nationalism seemed to be the answer and a way to perpetuate these ideas • Slogans like sonno joi and kokugaku replaced • Fukuko kyohei …rich nation strong army • Oitsuke oikose • Risshishugi………….successism • Indoctrination of the people seemed to be the answer, while this was practiced in other countries in Japan it took on a pro Emperor focus • Education was to provide the key. From 1890 Imperial Rescript introduced • Western heroes and ideals replaced with Japanese and Confucian virtues • Emphasis on Confucian and Shintoist values

8. Impact of Education reforms • Government control on choice of texts • Morally uplifting songs and school assemblies • Displays of the Japanese flag • Contradiction between religious freedom of the Constitution and ‘state shintoism’ • To serve the Emperor was to be a true Japanese, not granted to others, who therefore were lesser human beings • In many ways this was a return to ancient Japanese texts which glorified the Emperor. The ‘rescript’ formed one of Japan’s modern myths • In this way:the changes can be seen a a Restoration

9. Guided Economic Development • Japan’s advantages • A large educated and obedient workforce • Surplus workers in the agricultural sector • Accumulated capital in the private sector ( merchants) • Some established business practices ….silk , textiles, market gardens, manufacture • Limitations on natural resources but sufficient quantities of basics: wood water coal ironsands • What it lacked was technology and entrepreneurs • Japan was late to the Industrialisation process but could benefit from the catch up

10. Motives: Eco and Military revival of Japan • Additional factors: Prevent further rebellions and provide jobs for unemployed samurai • New slogan Increase production promote industry • Led to serious problems in the short term but by 1890’s the efforts had clearly paid off

11. Role of the government • Encourage entrepreneurial spirit of lower ranking samurai and the believers of the self help philosophy • Determined to keep modernization in the hands of the people • Remove resistance to investment. Government took on investment and entrepreneurial ventures • The government took upon itself to provide incentive and initiative for development • Only two houses Mitsui and Sumitomo were initially willing to invest in government ventures

12. Downside to economic development • Industrialization and its cost-benefit ratio • Initial attempts were disastrous; imported goods were cheaper, so Japan imported more and exported less • The Government tried to deal with the problem and lay all the infrastructure to create a modern economy

13. Government initiative • Governments spent huge amounts of money to prevent develop the domestic economy, prevent drainage of funds • Recognized the necessity for state intervention • Government efforts to create infrastructure

14. Mitsui • One of the traditional business houses • Owned textile mills in Edo • Diversified in to banking activities • When it was clear that the government was diversifying into new ventures • Established a Bank and then trading ventures and became the leading centre for foreign commerce • Handled military contracts during the Satsuma rebellion • In 1881 it bought up the coal mines • So from the beginnings in textile under the Tokugawa this group diversified into big business

15. Entreprenurial spirit • Two people played a key role in economic development the founder of Mitsubishi and Shibusawa. Business rivals with differing views on the economy but convinced of the need for economic development • Iwatasaki the founder of Mitsubishi • Shibusawa Eiichi: a major philanthropist • Opened the Osaka Spinning mills • Founded schools • Homes for the elderly • Showed the way, profit making could have a human side and removed the stigma of ‘trade’ • However, these did not pave the way for private ventures • Most enterprises were undertaken and maintained by the government • In the first 20 years the governments faced serious economic problems • Rebellions in the early years • Compensatory payments • Payments on foreign advisors • These problems led to serious inflation • Rice prices doubled between 1877 and 1880 • Deflation in the 1880’s made the government sell off in a public auction non military ventures to people at low prices

16. Zaibatsu • Beneficiaries of the government sales • Concentrated much of Japan’s industry in the hands of a few • These were men who realized the long term advantages of buying off factories selling at low prices • In time this group formed a financial clique, a small but influential group that enjoyed a controlling position in the economy • Zaibatsu dominated by the newer younger ex-samurai • The exception were the founders of Mitsubishi and Shibusawa Eiichi

17. War and politics • Japan saw Korea as a ‘dagger pointed at Japan’s heart • By 1890’s the threat of colonozation had largely passed • Korea • In 1873 Saigo’s proposal of invasion had been refused but Japan saw Korea as a target • By using gunboat diplomacy, it secured an unequal treaty ……Kanghwa • This treaty led it to a direct showdown with China • Matters came to a head in 1894 when the Korean king appealed for help to quell the Tonghak rebellion, • China and Japan sent troops. Neither wished to withdraw troops • Japan started the war by sinking a Chinese troop ship • Sino Japanese war on 1st August 1894

18. Sino Japanese War • In this war, Japanese came out vitorioius • Demonstrated its superiority both on land and especially at sea • Chinese fleet crippled at the Yalu river • Chinese Port Arthur seized and by December at Weiwweihai, the Chinese fleet was destroyed • Treaty of Shimonoseki was humiliating for the Chinese. It lost its suzerainty over much its outlying areas including Korea • This marked the 1step in Japan’s empire building in Asia • A week later Japan forced to give up most of its gains to the Tripartite Invention by Russia, Italy and Germany • Three years later much to Japan’s indignation they did the same, grabbed areas of China • For Japan this was a great moment • It had come of age. Just weeks before the war it had overturned its unequal treaty • Japanese success in war actually added more instability to domestic politics • The age of the oligarchs was giving way to the younger generation

19. Russo Japanese War • Background • Russian expansion in Asia alarmed Japan • During the Boxer Rebellion Russian and Japanese and 6 other nations help to quell the Boxer Rebellion • Russian refusal to withdraw troops worried Japan and other nations • Ito wanted to get Japan to recognize Russian rights in Manchuria in return for Russian recognition of Japan’s rights in Korea • Russians opposed this • War faction in Japan led by Yamagata and Katsura Tako wanted confrontation • This led to an alliance with Britain in 1902. it was an epoch making alliance , the first ever military pact on EQUAL terms between a western and a non western nation • While the treaty did not guarantee British help in a war with Japan, it was an assurance that other powers may not interfere in this conflict • Japan broke off diplomatic relations with Japan in 1904 • Attacked Japanese ships and by 10th Fenruary officially declared war

20. The course of the Russo Japanese War • Japanese advance up to the Yalu River • Japanese forces took over Nanshan and Dairen and laid siege to Port Arthur in August • Fall of Port Arthur in Feb 1905 • March 1905, after heaving fighting around Mukden, Japanese take control • May 1905 the Russian fleet is sunk at the Tsushima Straits • Admiral Tojo secretly asked the US to intervene

21. The treaty of Portsmouth • The treaty of Portsmouth was successfully negotiatied by Theodore Roosevelt • China got back Manchuria • Russia recognised Japan’s interest in Korea • It also gave Japan control of the South Manchuria railway • Japan was expecting an indemnity payment to repay the loans it took from Britain and USA. It did not receive one • Japan also gained Southern Sakhalin • Japan earned the respect of the western powers for it had defeated one of the largest although not the strongest western power • It was the first ever victory of a non western power over a western power • Japan now was the coloniser instead of the colonised • It had taken Taiwan, obtained territory in Manchuria and South Sakhalin, and to all effects and purposes a free hand in Korea

22. Annexation of Korea • In November 1905 Korea became a protectorate of Japan • Japanese troops occupied the Royal capital • Ito Hirobumi became the Resident General • The Korean army was disbanded • The world largely ignored Korea’s protests • Close to 1400 protests by Koreans in 2 years • 1909 Ito assassininated • In 1910 Korea was annexed

23. Restoration of theEmperor or Reinvention of the monarchy? • Re-instate the Emperor • Ownership of land returns to the Emperor rather than the Shogun • Domination of the Emperor remains Fujiwara family and now Genro ( Satcho clique) • Economy dominated by the Zaibatsu • Emphasis on Shintoism but a difference: state Shinto implied loyalty to the Emperor • Imperial Rescript and the modern Japanese myth a definite link • War and emphasis on the military?

24. Re-invention • Samurai disbanded • Westernization in almost all spheres of life • Growth and development of a modern western style economy • Empire building in Asia

25. Assessing the Meiji Restoration • Traditional view: Praise for the leaders and the political changes that they brought about. • Basil Hall Chamberlain wrote in 1891: He commented on the huge changes in Japan. He also pointed out that this was a part of a broader change. It was a Japanese variation of a global shift • From 1920’s a marxist view emerged that the Meiji restoration had created the exploitation of the masses by the Meiji Bourgeois • In the immediate postwar years the Meiji leaders were criticised and blamed for Japan’s imperial ambitions.

26. historiography • Kenneth Henshall • Japan’s modernisation was not smooth. More unplanned developments, trial and error and role of chance than the leaders would have liked. The leaders borrowed improvised studied and planned as best as they could. They were helped by good fortune and sheer determination to succeed. Not all of the nation’s people were happy or proud but most were. If success was to be measured in terms of being recognized as a strong western style power with a colony or two then Japan had succeeded. In just 50 years Japan went from being virtually dismissed by the west as an obscure rather backward country to being recognized as a major world power. It was a remarkable achievement

27. Andrew Gordon • In a decade if you consider any factor: economic political or social the changes are breath taking and fully merit the term revolution. • The Meiji leaders inherited a hereditary organization and they replaced it with ministries that had clearly defined responsibilities. They eventually succeeded in giving the state greater legitimacy and power than it ever held in the past • If one accepts the sweeping changes of the French Revolution as a standard then the Meiji Restoration was an incomplete or distorted revolution for it was the Samurai class that dominated the revolution • The great changes of the Meiji Era was a revolution from above. Until 1868 many of these were disgruntled men. However to call them as revolutionaries from above is misleading. It would imply that they gave up their privileges. In reality it was their frustration with the systems that accounts for the revolutionary fervour of the Meiji insurgents. This was a revolution of a frustrated sub elite. • It also important to realise that this was an ongoing turbulent protest .Public schools, the new tax system and military conscription were imposed on an often defiant population. • It was a westernised independent nation at a time when many of the countries were under western control

28. Marius B Jansen • Evaluations of the Meiji leaders have changed over the years • Demonized in the early post war years for creating the imperial machine, that interpretation has undergone a re evaluation • The achievements of the Meiji leaders was real although achieved at a high cost to the Japanese and Asians • The Meiji leaders were a desperate and disparate group who agreed on the essentials • The Meiji travelled to find out and were determined to graft those new institutions in their land yet cling tenaciously to their old traditions. No advisor from abroad found his expectations of his own work fulfilled; the Germans expected the Peerage to provide a self perpetuating hereditary elite assisting a powerful sovereign, the Americans an irreversible march toward democratic individualism • Although politics was dominated by the SatCho clique who never allowed any one to challenge their primacy, they also never hesitated to reach out to qualified advisors and appoint men with experience who no longer posed a political threat • The Meiji leaders were pragmatists and the design of the Meiji state took form as it grew. • No Meiji leader wrote about his own accomplishments but credited it to the virtues of the Emperor. Mutsohito was at the centre of the plans. Protected from the lower house but the House of Peers and from the Cabinet by the Privy Council. AT every level there were checks and balances designed his prerogatives. His Imperial rescripts were designed to uphold morality and justice during his rule. • NO other Emperor experienced the changes that he did. Removed from obscurity to become the symbol for authority and the focus of all that the Meiji leaders achieved. By inclination he was more of a traditionalist. He preferred character building than modernism. Preferred caution to adventure. Yet Japan’s foreign policy succcesses were attributed to him. He became the face of Japan.