1. A Topical Approach toLife-Span Development 6e Chapter Twelve: Gender and Sexuality John W. Santrock

2. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Basic concepts • Gender: Characteristics of being female or male • Sex:Designates the biological aspects of being female or male • Gender role: Set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think • Gender typing: Process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender

3. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Chromosomes: 23rd pair with XX or XY • Hormones • Estrogens • Influence development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle • Androgens • Promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics

4. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development p. 372 • Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) • Androgen-insensitive males • Pelvic field defect • Failed sex reassignment

5. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Biological Influences • Sex hormones and behavior • Levels of testosterone are correlated with sexual behavior in boys during puberty. • Violent male criminals have above-average levels of testosterone. • Professional football players have higher levels of testosterone than ministers do.

6. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Social influences • Differences due to social experiences • Social role theory: Gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women • In most cultures, women have less power and control fewer resources than men. • As women adapted to roles with less power and status, they showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men.

7. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Social influences • Differences due to social experiences • Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviors • Do Parents Really Treat Boys and Girls Differently? • Mothers’ socialization strategies p.374 • Fathers’ socialization strategies • Exposure to media, peers, other adults in culture

8. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender • Cognitive influences • Gender schema theory • Gender schema theory states that gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture. • A gender schema is a mental framework that organizes the world in terms of male and female. • Children are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas.

9. Figure 12.2 - Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations

10. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender similarities and differences • Physical differences • Body fat, height • Females • have longer life expectancy • less likely to develop mental or physical disorders • Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels • Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure

11. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Gender similarities and differences • Physical differences • Female brains are smaller, have more folds • Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men • Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males • Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females

12. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Cognitive similarities and differences • Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills • Others claim no differences or exaggerated • National standardized tests • Boys slightly better at math and science • Girls significantly better at reading and writing • Overall, girls superior students to boys • More males placed in special/remedial classes

13. Figure 12.3 - Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females

14. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Aggression • Males more physically aggressive in all cultures • Females may be verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men • Self-Regulation • Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems • Controversies over psychological differences

15. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Meta-analysis • Gender differences: small to nonexistent • Physical aggression differences were moderate • Largest difference in motor skills favoring males • Males more sexually active than females

16. Gender Stereotyping, Similarities, and Differences • Socioemotional similarities and differences • Gender in context • Gender varies across contexts • Males more likely to help in perceived danger • Females more likely to volunteer to help with child • Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys • Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression • Cultural backgrounds influence socialization

17. Exploring Sexuality • Sex in America Survey • Heterosexual attitudes and behavior • Different categories for frequency of sex • One third have sex twice a week • One third a few times a month • One third a few times a year or not at all • Married couples have sex more often • Most couples enjoy traditional sex • Adultery is exception, not the rule • Men think about sex more than women • Most lead conservative sexual lives

18. Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), affect about one of every six U.S. adults • Gonorrhea • Syphilis • Chlamydia • Genital Herpes • HPV — causes genital warts • HIV and AIDS — sexually-transmitted disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

19. Exploring Sexuality • Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) • Protecting against STIs • Education and development of effective drug treatments • Only safe behavior is abstinence • Know your and your partner’s risk status • Obtain screening tests for STIs • Have protected, not unprotected, sex • Don’t have sex with multiple partners

20. Sexuality through the Life Span • Child sexuality • Majority of children engage in some sex play • Usually with friends or siblings • Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals • Most motivated by curiosity • Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years

21. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity • Most have insatiable curiosity about sex • Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion • Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality

22. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors • U.S. study: • African American and inner-city youth most active • Asian American youth most restricted • Males more active than females • Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be safer and not really “having sex”

23. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Personal risk factors • Emotionally unprepared for sexual experiences • Other risky behaviors linked to early sexual activity • Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems • Risky behavior patterns can continue as disorders in emerging adulthood • Contextual factors • SES, parenting styles, peer factors • Having sibling engaging in early activity

24. Sexuality through the Life Span • Sexuality in adolescence • Cognitive factors are linked to sexual risk taking • Contraceptive use can reduce risks; increased use of contraceptives by adolescents • Age affects choice and consistency of use • 3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually • U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world • Negative consequences for teen mother and child

25. 80 60 40 Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old 20 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Figure 12.7 - Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy

26. Sexuality through the Life Span • Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy • Health risks for mother and child • Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness • Young mothers more likely to • Drop out of school; were low achievers in school • Have history of conduct problems • Come from low-income backgrounds • Live in poverty