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RANDOM VARIABLES

RANDOM VARIABLES. Random Variable. A random variable  or  stochastic variable  is a variable whose value is subject to variations due to chance.

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RANDOM VARIABLES

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  1. RANDOM VARIABLES

  2. Random Variable • A random variable or stochastic variable is a variable whose value is subject to variations due to chance. • A random variable conceptually does not have a single, fixed value (even if unknown); rather, it can take on a set of possible different values, each with an associated probability.

  3. Discrete Random Variables • A discrete random variable is one which may take on only a countable number of distinct values such as 0,1,2,3,4,........ • Examples include the number of children in a family, the number of patients in a doctor's surgery, and the number of defective light bulbs in a box of ten.

  4. Continuous Random Variables • A continuous random variable is one which takes an infinite number of possible values. • Continuous random variables are usually measurements. • Examples include height, weight, and the time required to run a mile, etc.

  5. Probability Functions • A probability function maps the possible values of x against their respective probabilities of occurrence, p(x) • p(x) is a number from 0 to 1.0. • The area under a probability function is always 1.

  6. Probability Mass Function  A probability mass function (pmf) is a function that gives the probability that a discrete random variable is exactly equal to some value.

  7. x p(x) 1 p(x=1)=1/6 2 p(x=2)=1/6 3 p(x=3)=1/6 4 p(x=4)=1/6 5 p(x=5)=1/6 6 p(x=6)=1/6 1.0 Probability Mass Function (pmf)

  8. x P(x≤A) 1 P(x≤1)=1/6 2 P(x≤2)=2/6 3 P(x≤3)=3/6 4 P(x≤4)=4/6 5 P(x≤5)=5/6 6 P(x≤6)=6/6 Cumulative Distribution Function

  9. P(x) 1.0 5/6 2/3 1/2 1/3 1/6 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

  10. Probability Density Function A probability density function (pdf) describes the relative likelihood for the random variable to take on a given value.

  11. Continuous Case • The probability function that accompanies a continuous random variable is a continuous mathematical function that integrates to 1. • For example, recall the negative exponential function (in probability, this is called an “exponential distribution”): • This function integrates to 1:

  12. p(x)=e-x 1 x 1 2 Example: Probability of x falling within 1 to 2 Clinical example: Survival times after lung transplant may roughly follow an exponential function. Then, the probability that a patient will die in the second year after surgery (between years 1 and 2) is 23%. Curve of Density f(x) P (a ≤ X ≤ b)

  13. Discrete Probability Distribution • Let’s define x = no. of bedroom of sampled houses • Let’s x = {2, 3, 4, 5} • Also, let’s probability of each outcome be: SGG2413 - Theory of Probability

  14. p(x) 1/6 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 Discrete Example: Roll of a Dice

  15. Discrete Distribution: Formulas • P(a < X ≤ b) = F(b) – F(a) = (Sum of all Probabilities)

  16. Continuous Distribution: Formulas • P(a < X ≤ b) = F(b) – F(a) = dv dv = 1 (Sum of all Probabilities)

  17. x 10 11 12 13 14 P(x) .4 .2 .2 .1 .1 Example • The number of patients seen in the ER in any given hour is a random variable represented by x. The probability distribution for x is: Find the probability that in a given hour: a.exactly 14 patients arrive b.At least 12 patients arrive c.At most 11 patients arrive p(x=14)= .1 p(x12)= (.2 + .1 +.1) = .4 p(x≤11)= (.4 +.2) = .6

  18. PROBLEM 1 Graph the probability function f(x) = kx2 (x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5: k suitable) and the distribution function.

  19. PROBLEM 3 Graph f and F when density = k = Const, if -4 ≤ x ≤ 4 and 0 elsewhere (use Uniform Distribution).

  20. Uniform Distribution • f(x) = 1/b-a a ≤ x ≤ b 0 Otherwise • F(x) = x-a/b-a a ≤ x ≤ b 0 Otherwise

  21. PROBLEM 5 Graph f and F when f(-2) = f(2) = 1/8, f(-1) = f(1) = 3/8, Can f have further positive values?

  22. PROBLEM 7 Let X be the number of years before a particular type of machine will need replacement. Assume that X has the probability function f(1) = 0.1, f(2) = 0.2, f(3) = 0.2, f(4) = 0.2, f(5) = 0.3. Graph f and F. Find the probability that the machine needs no replacement during first 3 years.

  23. PROBLEM 9 Find the probability that none of the three bulbs in a traffic signal must be replaced during the first 1200 hours of operation, if the probability that a bulb must be replaced is a random variable X with density f(x) = 6 [ 0.25 – (x – 1.5)2 ] when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and f(x) = 0 otherwise, where x is time measured in multiples of 1000 hours.

  24. PROBLEM 11 Let X [millimeters] be the thickness of washers a machine turns out. Assume that X has the density f(x) = kx if 1.9 < x and x < 2.1, and 0 otherwise. Find k. What is the probability that a washer will have thickness between 1.95 1nd 2.05 mm ?

  25. PROBLEM 13 Let the random variable X with density f(x) = ke-x if 0 < x < 2, and 0 otherwise (x = time measured in years) be the time after which certain ball bearing are worn out. Find k and the probability that a bearing will last at least 1 year.

  26. Review Question 1 If you toss a die, what’s the probability that you roll a 3 or less? • 1/6 • 1/3 • 1/2 • 5/6 • 1.0

  27. Review Question 1 If you toss a die, what’s the probability that you roll a 3 or less? • 1/6 • 1/3 • 1/2 • 5/6 • 1.0

  28. Review Question 2 Two dice are rolled and the sum of the face values is six? What is the probability that at least one of the dice came up a 3? • 1/5 • 2/3 • 1/2 • 5/6 • 1.0

  29. Review Question 2 Two dice are rolled and the sum of the face values is six. What is the probability that at least one of the dice came up a 3? • 1/5 • 2/3 • 1/2 • 5/6 • 1.0 How can you get a 6 on two dice? 1-5, 5-1, 2-4, 4-2, 3-3 One of these five has a 3. 1/5

  30. p(x) 1 x 1 We can see it’s a probability distribution because it integrates to 1 (the area under the curve is 1): Example 2: Uniform distribution The uniform distribution: all values are equally likely. f(x)= 1 , for 1x 0

  31. p(x) 1 ½ 0 x 1 Example: Uniform distribution What’s the probability that x is between 0 and ½? Clinical Research Example: When randomizing patients in an RCT, we often use a random number generator on the computer. These programs work by randomly generating a number between 0 and 1 (with equal probability of every number in between). Then a subject who gets X<.5 is control and a subject who gets X>.5 is treatment. P(½ x 0)= ½

  32. Expected Value and Variance • All probability distributions are characterized by an expected value (mean) and a variance (standard deviation squared).

  33. Expected value of a random variable • Expected value is just the average or mean (µ) of random variable x. • It’s sometimes called a “weighted average” because more frequent values of X are weighted more highly in the average. • It’s also how we expect X to behave on-average over the long run (“frequentist” view again).

  34. Expected value, formally Discrete case: Continuous case:

  35. Symbol Interlude • E(X) = µ • these symbols are used interchangeably

  36. x 10 11 12 13 14 P(x) .4 .2 .2 .1 .1 Example: expected value • Recall the following probability distribution of ER arrivals:

  37. The probability (frequency) of each person in the sample is 1/n. Sample Mean is a special case of Expected Value… Sample mean, for a sample of n subjects: =

  38. Expected Value • Expected value is an extremely useful concept for good decision-making!

  39. Example: the lottery • The Lottery (also known as a tax on people who are bad at math…) • A certain lottery works by picking 6 numbers from 1 to 49. It costs $1.00 to play the lottery, and if you win, you win $2 million after taxes. • If you play the lottery once, what are your expected winnings or losses?

  40. x$ p(x) -1 .999999928 + 2 million 7.2 x 10--8 “49 choose 6” Out of 49 numbers, this is the number of distinct combinations of 6. Lottery Calculate the probability of winning in 1 try: The probability function (note, sums to 1.0):

  41. x$ p(x) -1 .999999928 + 2 million 7.2 x 10--8 Expected Value The probability function Expected Value E(X) = P(win)*$2,000,000 + P(lose)*-$1.00 = 2.0 x 106 * 7.2 x 10-8+ .999999928 (-1) =.144 - .999999928 = -$.86 Negative expected value is never good! You shouldn’t play if you expect to lose money!

  42. Expected Value If you play the lottery every week for 10 years, what are your expected winnings or losses? 520 x (-.86) = -$447.20

  43. Gambling (or how casinos can afford to give so many free drinks…) A roulette wheel has the numbers 1 through 36, as well as 0 and 00. If you bet $1 that an odd number comes up, you win or lose $1 according to whether or not that event occurs. If random variable X denotes your net gain, X=1 with probability 18/38 and X= -1 with probability 20/38. E(X) = 1(18/38) – 1 (20/38) = -$.053 On average, the casino wins (and the player loses) 5 cents per game. The casino rakes in even more if the stakes are higher: E(X) = 10(18/38) – 10 (20/38) = -$.53 If the cost is $10 per game, the casino wins an average of 53 cents per game. If 10,000 games are played in a night, that’s a cool $5300.

  44. Expected value isn’t everything though… • Take the hit new show “Deal or No Deal” • Everyone know the rules? • Let’s say you are down to two cases left. $1 and $400,000. The banker offers you $200,000. • So, Deal or No Deal?

  45. x$ x$ p(x) p(x) +1 +$200,000 .50 1.0 +$400,000 .50 Deal or No Deal… • This could really be represented as a probability distribution and a non-random variable:

  46. x$ x$ p(x) p(x) +1 +$200,000 .50 1.0 +$400,000 .50 Expected value doesn’t help…

  47. How to decide? • Variance! • If you take the deal, the variance/standard deviation is 0. • If you don’t take the deal, what is average deviation from the mean? • What’s your gut guess?

  48. Variance/standard deviation 2=Var(x) =E(x-)2 “The expected (or average) squared distance (or deviation) from the mean”

  49. Variance, continuous Discrete case: Continuous case?:

  50. Symbol Interlude • Var(X)= 2 • SD(X) =  • these symbols are used interchangeably

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