Imperial Powers and Decolonization: Cold War Politics: Case Study: Congo

1. ImperialPowers andDecolonization:Cold War Politics:Case Study: Congo March 24-27

2. Cold War Politics: the Congo Case Study: the Congo Please refer to Lecture February 29 ‘Decolonization and Settler Colonies’ Slides 25 through 53 for Discussion of ‘Decolonization’ This Lecture/Case Study Picks Up with ‘Independence’

3. Cold War Politics: the Congo “ History will one day have its say, but it will not be the history that Brussels, Paris, Washington or the United Nations will teach, but that which they will teach in the countries emancipated from colonialism and puppets. Africa will write its own history, and it will be, to the north and to the south of the Sahara, a history of glory and dignity”‘[Lumumba’s Last Letter’ ]

4. Belgian Congo 1960 Stanleyville Leopoldville Elisabethville

5. Cold War Politics: the Congo Leopoldville :Kongolese “Association des BaKongos” (ABAKO): Joseph Kasavubu • similar to mass parties West Africa, ethnic focus • cultural association (1950) • drew on memories Simon Kimbangu ‘Prophet’ leading colonial resistance • Kasavubu ‘guided by spirit’

6. Cold War Politics: the Congo Elisabethville:Confederation des Association Tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT), Moise Tshombe • businessman, foreign financial interests • fuelled local fears against migrant workers • large Belgian settler population (more than 100,000) post-war immigration ‘2nd Colonization’ • enormous wealth, talked ‘secession ‘

7. Cold War Politics: the Congo Stanleyville: National Congolese Movement, Patrice Lumumba • favoured national unity rather than federation • comparable to Nkrumah’s CPP in Ghana • followers “hodge-podge” political interests • less defined ethnic interests than elsewhere

8. Cold War Politics: the Congo Kwame Nkrumah: • “The situation which faced the Congo on the eve of independence did not differ profoundly from that which threatened Ghana’s independence at the period of the ascendancy of the NLM of Ashanti, the Togoland Congress, the Anglo Youth Assoc., the Northern People’s Party and the Muslim Assoc., all of which were designed to destroy the CPP movement. As in Ghana, I was convinced that the Congo needed a strong unitary form of government. Events in the Congo since independence have only strengthened this conviction”. [Cited in Mazrui & Tidy, African Political Parties, p.96]

9. Cold War Politics: the Congo • La Table Ronde Belgo-Congolaise, January 1960: - Belgians expected Congolese representatives to be divided along ethnic and regional lines - But they presented ‘common front’ At the political talks: Belgians agreed to Independence on June 30, 1960

10. Cold War Politics: the Congo Independence Day, June 30 1960: • Belgian King spoke of civilizing role of Leopold II, advantages brought by colonialism • warned Congo not to jettison Belgian institutions, policies • Kasabuvu read out pre-planned, obsequious response [Following section covered in first Video Excerpt, ’Katanga: the untold story’, add’l rdgs]

11. Cold War Politics: the Congo Independence Day, June 30 1960: • Lumumba gave an unscheduled speech: completely, vehemently denouncing colonialism “ [Even as we are now dealing with each other as Equals] . . .no Congolese worthy of the name will ever be able to forget that is was by fighting that it has been won [applause], a day-to-day fight, an ardent and idealistic fight, a fight in which we were spared neither privation nor suffering, and for which we gave our strength and our blood.

12. Cold War Politics: the Congo We are proud of this struggle, of tears, of fire, and of blood, to the depths of our being, for it was a noble and just struggle, and indispensable to put an end to the humiliating slavery which was imposed upon us by force. [see “Lumumba’s speech”]

13. Independence Day Lumumba arrives Palaisde la Nation, Leopoldvillefor Independence Ceremony,30 June 1960.[Ludo de Witte, The Assassinationof Lumumba, London 2001:96&ff.] Lumumba and Gaston Eyskens (Belgian PrimeMinister) sign Declarationof Congolese Independence. [Ludo de Witte, The Assassinationof Lumumba, London 2001:96&ff.]

14. Cold War Politics: the Congo Patrice Lumumba (centre) forms his first government asJoseph Mobutu (far right) ‘waits in the wings’. [Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff]

15. Cold War Politics: the Congo Responses to Independence Day Speech: - Belgium concluded that Lumumba was a ‘madman’ who had to be eliminated: - Tshombe (CONAKAT- copper company) worried about implications for investment (following on Lumumba’s speech) - ‘West’ in general (US in particular) worried about Lumumba’s ‘unpredictability’

16. Cold War Politics: the Congo Independence Day Speech: “Key” momentin Congo’s future Lumumba had made it clear he was not going to be controlled by any existing party or interest – domestic or foreign This made him the enemy of Belgian, US and (existing) Congolese Business interests

17. Cold War Politics: the Congo Katanga:- center of Congo’s wealth - centre of foreign investment - Tshombe pressing for loose federation that would allow Katanga to operate as more or less independent state

18. Cold War Politics: the Congo Katanga (Tshome): - worked closely Belgian Business interests - refused to co-operate with new government - maintained (financed) mercenary army: put Belgian officers in charge [From here on contrast with Video “Katanga: the untold Story”, Add’l Rdgs]

19. Cold War Politics: the Congo Tshombe inspecting His Troops (n.d.)

20. Cold War Politics: the Congo Soviet Union in Post-War Africa : - USSR active in Africa but through 1950s, little success in gaining influence in Congo - with independence and ‘unpredictable’ Lumumba: saw possible ‘opening’ for changing situation

21. Cold War Politics: the Congo Soviet Union in Post-War Africa: - US (also Britain, France and especially South Africa) saw investments threatened - American State Department, CIA actively stepped up efforts, including interference with local media - this, in turn further stimulated Soviet interest and activity

22. Cold War Politics: the Congo Within days of Independence:- Army mutinied: felt betrayed that they remainedinhands of Belgian officers - 4 July: furtherprovokedby Belgian commander, who publicly demoted a Congolese n.c.o., wrote inflammatory words on blackboard at meeting: Avant l'indépendance égale après l'indépendance

23. Cold War Politics: the Congo Within days of Independence: - unleashed uncontrolled attacks on, rapes/slaughter of Belgians (by Congolese soldiers) - six deaths reported Katanga - led to exodus white civil servants, technicians, army personnel - Belgium demanded (of Lumumba) that order be restored

24. Cold War Politics: the Congo Responses: - Tshombe declared formal secession of Katanga - Kisai followedsoon after

25. Cold War Politics: the Congo Army under Joseph Mobutu: rampage continued - ‘unable’ to bring them under control?- Many say ‘let them loose’ Mobutu himself said to be ‘ambitious, determined, ruthless’

26. Cold War Politics: the Congo Belgium sent in Paratroopers – against Lumumba’s express objections

27. Cold War Politics: the Congo Lumumba facing:- social chaos- foreign (colonial) troops back on Congolese soil - disintegration of state Turned to (in this order): • - United Nations • - United States • - African Allies • - Soviet Union

28. Lumumba with UN Secreatry General Dag Hammarskjold, after their conference at UN Headquarters in New York on the critical situation in the Congo, 24 July 1960. [Ludo de Witte, The Assissination of Lumumba, 96&ff]

29. Cold War Politics: the Congo UN Security Council Response: - Britain and US supported Belgium’s move to “recolonize” Katanga - All [UK, US, Belgium] distrusted Lumumba: saw him as a ‘socialist’ -- feared he would nationalize resources - UN accepted a mandate to intervene, troops arrived August 1960, but. . .

30. Cold War Politics: the Congo Agreed only to “restore” law and order, not to support Lumumba against the secessionists - Persuaded Belgians to withdraw. . . BUT - made no attempt to remove them from Katanga

31. Cold War Politics: the Congo However: - When army loyal to Lumumba tried to retake Katanga for Congo: UN also refused to prevent them from entering the seceding province ‘Peace Keepers’ setting up conditions for continuing War

32. Cold War Politics: the Congo Katanga determined to fight forindependence from Congo: - refusedto comply with UN ultimatums about use foreign, mercenarytroops: Rhodesians, South Africans (among others) - by1961, UN pulled intoconflict itself

33. Cold War Politics: the Congo UN Secretary General to Commander on the ground: ‘do what needs to be done militarily’ - operation involved soldiers, equipment supplied by some thirty countries - decision to be ‘active’ participant in attempt to bring Katanga back into Congo very controversial

34. Cold War Politics: the Congo Complicated further by: - ‘collateral damage’: too many civilian deaths, injured, property damage - turned all of Katanga’s population (black and white) against UN - Katanga government fuelled flames with incendiary media messages

35. Cold War Politics: the Congo “Bringout your guns, spears, knives, axes and clubs, and kill all the U.N. to combat the murder campaign of Secretary-GeneralU Thant and his internationalminions!” [see ‘Congo: Battle for Katanga’, Readings; U Thant succeeded Dag Hammarskjold – see below]

36. Cold War Politics: the Congo Lumumbaturned to Soviet Union for arms when UN refused: - now ‘proof’ of his Communism - neighbouringSouth Africa, British Central African Federation (Zambia, Rhodesia, Malawi) openly supportedKatanga - TshombeinexileinRhodesia

37. Cold War Politics: the Congo 1961: mysterious death of UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold in plane crash while en route to talk with Tshombe in Rhodesia - many felt decision to ‘step beyond his mandate’ in Katanga hurt ability UN to function effectively - Rumoured: CIA, British intelligence behind crash True or Not: reflects upon how ‘Congo Crisis’ perceived internationally at the time

38. Cold War Politics: the Congo UN Moroccan Troops Landing in Elizabethville, Katanga

39. Cold War Politics: the Congo UN Troops Represented over 30 Countries: here India, Ireland, Ethiopia

40. Cold War Politics: the Congo UN air attacks rapidly escalated, contributedtoresentment local populations Two IAF Canberras flying in formation with a pair of Swedish J29s and a pair of Ethiopian F-86 Sabres a photograph that epitomises the nature of the United Nations effort in the Congo

41. Cold War Politics: the Congo Eisenhower administration sent in CIA: - Chose Joseph Mobutu, former aide to Lumumba, ranking Colonel in army, as ‘their man in the Congo’ - CIA actively involved in recruiting, cultivating him Began extensive paramilitary campaign to ensure Western influence/control

42. Following Eisenhower: Kennedy and Mobutu: a young, ambitious President reaches ‘an understanding’ with equally young, ambitious Army Officer Michela Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz, London, 2001: 132&ff]

43. Cold War Politics: the Congo “We now know that even though the threat of communism in Congo was quite weak at the time of Congo’s independence, the CIA engaged in pervasive political meddling and paramilitary action between 1960 and 1968 to ensure that the country retained a pro-Western government and to help its pathetic military on the battlefield. . . .

44. Cold War Politics: the Congo . . . So extensive were these efforts that at the time, they ranked as the largest covert operation in the agency’s history, costing an estimated $90–$150 million in current dollars, not counting the aircraft, weapons, and transportation and maintenance services provided by the Defense Department.” Stephen Weismann, What Really Happened in Congo? Foreign Affairs, July/August, 2014

45. Cold War Politics: the Congo Following Independence, Lumumba’s control: ‘power vacuum’ sucked in foreign powers - extraordinary mineral wealth combined with physical position made Congo ‘Strategic’ Whoever controlled Congo (especially Katanga) had potential to influence political, economic developments throughout central, southern Africa!

46. Cold War Politics: the Congo In ‘Cold War’: Africa new arena -- Congo flashpoint - US feared African leader preaching non-alignment opened door to Communism - Lumumba frequently labeled ‘Communist’: echoed by Belgians and South Africa (whose own position in Africa and support by Americans hinged on its role as bastion against communist influence – last case study) UN would not intervene where American interests were strongest, namely Katanga

47. Cold War Politics: the Congo America’s chosen Army Officer Joseph Mobutu was now called upon: - Lumumba arrested (Kasabuvu permitted it, though he was eventually ‘neutralized’ as well) - Mobutu took control, though not office per se - UN provided ‘protection’ for Lumumba’s house arrest

48. Cold War Politics: the Congo - Lumumba escaped: UN withdrew protection - captured by army and taken to Katanga (secretly) - murdered with Tshombe’s connivance and consent

49. Joseph Mobutu in Leopoldville on 15 September 1960, having just announced that the Congolese army would betaking over the running of the country. Ludo de Witte, The Assassination of Lumumba, 96&ff.]

50. Lumumba and his aids in a truck at Leopoldville airport, on the day after their arrest by Mobutu’s army, 2 December1960.