Sociological Research

1. Sociological Research Sociology 101

2. A Look Ahead • How do sociologists go about setting up a research project? • How do they ensure that the results of the research are reliable and accurate? • Can they carry out their research without violating the rights of thosethey study?

3. Sociology is a science because it uses the same techniques as other sciences • Explaining social phenomena is what sociological theory is all about • Sociological theory is much more than speculation Sociologists typically conduct two types of empirical studies.

4. Descriptive studiesdesigned to find out what is happening to whom, where, and when. • Explanatory studiesanswer the questions why and how.

5. What is the Scientific Method? • Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

6. Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method

7. Scientific Method? Defining the Problem • State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate • Operational Definition: explanation of abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept Reviewing the Literature • Refines the problem under study • Helps us decide what questions to ask.

8. Formulate a Hypothesis • A tentative assumption. • A statement that speculates the relationship between two or more variables. • Variable - A trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions.

9. Types of Variables • Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another • Dependent variable: action depends on the influence of the independent variable to affect its action

10. What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2-3. Causal Logic

11. Causal Logic:Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other • Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation. • correlations not based on causal connections are called spurious correlations

12. Correlation is when a change in one variables is associated in some way with a change in another variable. Positive versus Negative Correlations

13. Collecting Data: Selecting the Sample Research Design • Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

14. Sample: selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population • RandomSample: when every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

15. Surveys • Study, generally in form of an interview or questionnaire, that provide sociologists with information about how people act or think • Questionnaireresearcher uses a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent • Interviewresearcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning

16. Surveys • Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form • Qualitativeresearch: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

17. Observation • Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community • Participantobservation: when sociologist joins a group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates • Ethnography: efforts to describe entire social setting through extended systematic observation

18. Experiments • Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables • Experimentalgroup: exposed to independent variable • Controlgroup: not exposed to independent variable • HawthorneEffect: unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

19. Use of Existing Sources Use of Existing Sources • Secondary Analysis: research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data A. Uniform Crime Reports - The annual publication of the FBI presenting official statistics on the rates and trends in crime in the USA.

20. Table 2-1: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

21. Table 2-2: Major Research Designs

22. b. NORC - National Opinion Research Center. Analyzing the Data • Statistical analysis

23. Developing the Conclusion • Supporting the Hypothesis • Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis • Controlling for Other Factors Control Variable:factor that is held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

24. Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income

25. Table 2-1: Top Reasons Why Men and Women had Sex

26. Table 2-2: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

27. Table 2-3: Major Research Designs

28. Ethics of Research • Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) • Maintain objectivity and integrity in research • Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity • Protect subjects from personal harm • Preserve confidentiality • Seek informed consent • Acknowledge collaboration and assistance • Disclose sources of financial support

29. Ethics of Research • Confidentiality • Research Funding • Value Neutrality • Feminist Methodology

30. Technology and Sociological Research • Extends range and capability to conduct research • Allows researchers to store and analyze large amounts of information • Web-based surveys in early stages, but initial results promising

31. Studying Human Sexuality • The Issue • Kaiser Family Foundation found more than two-thirds of TV shows include some sexual content • How does one carry out scientific research on such a controversial and personal topic?

32. Studying Human Sexuality • The Setting • Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S. • Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial

33. Studying Human Sexuality • Sociological Insights • Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research • ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency or corporation may also accept the agency’s perspective on what needs to be studied

34. Studying Human Sexuality • Policy Initiatives • In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices • Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed NHSLS to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S. • Used $1.6 million of private funding to fund research

35. Figure 2-5: Percent of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content

36. Using Statistics • Percentage: Shows portion of 100 • Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values • Mode: Single most common value in a series of values • Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

37. Reading Graphs and Tables • Tables allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions • Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables Graphs are often easier for the general public to understand

38. Figure 2-6: Changing Attitudes toward Legalization of Marijuana

39. Figure 2-7: Changing Attitudes toward Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age

40. Writing a Research Report • Finding Information • Check textbooks • Use library catalog • Use computerized periodical indexes • Examine government documents • Use newspapers • Ask people, organizations, and agencies • Consult instructor

41. Writing a Research Report • Writing the Report • Focus on topic • Develop an outline • Work ahead of deadline • Read paper aloud • Including Citations and References