The Definition Essay

1. The Definition Essay Week 10

2. Topics: Definition • To persuade, you have three modes of appeal: the appeal to reason, the appeal to emotions, and the appeal to character. • If appealing to reason: inductive or deductive • What do these terms mean? • If deductive: you’ll probably use a syllogism or enthymeme (Covering Thursday) • In prep for Thursday: look these terms up now. • If inductive: induction or the example

3. Definition: Organizing arguments • You must either have something to say or find something to say when writing an essay • The Classic Rhetoricians discovered that the human mind wants to seek out the nature of things: to define • The definition topic then is a way to organize the basis for an argument and that’s why we’re doing this now before our argumentative essay is due

4. Definition Explained • Definition is a way of “unpacking” what’s wrapped up in the subject being examined and organizing your argument • The uses of definition is to obtain the specific issue to be discussed • We need to define the key terms in our thematic proposition so our audience clearly understands what we’re talking about when we talk about…X

5. Lady Chatterley's Lover • Setting: London, October, 1969 The Old Bailey • Penguin Books is on trial for the publication of Lady Chatterley’s Lover by D.H. Lawrence • Extremely important: to define what was at issue • Chatterley Video • Where they debating: violations of the Obscene Publications Act of ‘59? If so, what had Penguin Books offended in this law? Did it offend by publishing an “obscene” book and if so, what was considered “obscene?” • How would the definition change with a change in context? How do we define “obscene” today in America? • Where will you go to find this information?

6. How do we define things? • Sometimes we can turn to the dictionary, but this is “icing”. We really want “cake.” • A term’s denotation only works when the dictionary definition agrees with our internal definition • Sometimes, we have to devise our own definitions because those available (in the dictionary or in the public sphere) are too vague or erroneous or inadequate • When has our Republic re-negotiated definitions? • We must stipulate the meaning we attach to certain terms

7. Coleridge: BiographiaLiteraria • The final definition then, so deduced, may be thus worded. A poem is that species of composition which is opposed to works of science by proposing for its immediate object pleasure, not truth; and from all other species (having this object in common with it) it is discriminated by proposing to itself such delight from the whole as is compatible with a distinct gratification from each component part.

8. Sub topic: Genus • The topic of definition can be used to clarify the point at issue but also to suggest a line of argument • In the Apology, Socrates uses the topic of definition to defend himself against the charge of being an atheist • First, he asks: what is meant by “divine?” He then argues that it must refer to the gods or the works of the gods • IF that’s true then, he says, he can’t be an atheist because:

9. Socrates defends himself through definition: • …You swear in the indictment that I teach and believe in divine or spiritual agencies (new or old, no matter for that); at any rate, I believe in spiritual agencies—so you swear in the affidavit; and yet if I believe in divine things, how can I help believing in spirits or demigods—must I not? To be sure I must; and therefore I may assume that your silence gives consent. Now what are spirits or demigods? Are they not either gods or the sons of gods?

10. Genus • Whenever the predicate of a proposition puts the subject into a general class of things the subject is being defined because limits are fixed to the term. • Your definitional propositions also pose your argument. • So, if a man leaves all his silver (genus) to his wife; a lawyer could argue that that means not just the candlesticks and silver plates, but all the coins (species) in his coffers because coin is just as much a species of silveras are plates and candlesticks.

11. Defining the “norm” (coin) • If you’re the preacher who says, “ Murder is a grievous sin” you’re congregation will likely agree • You have to justify your arguments; you can’t manufacture consent in most rhetorical situations • Define the “norm” and then argue whether the object conforms or does not conform to the norm

12. Definition by James Madison A republic, by which I mean a government in which the scheme of representation takes place, opens a different prospect and promises the cure for which we are seeking. Let us examine the points in which it varies from pure democracy, and we shall comprehend both the nature of the cure and the efficacy which it must derive from the Union. The two great points of difference between a democracy and a republic are: first, the delegation of the government, in the latter, to a small number of citizens elected by the rest; secondly, the greater number of citizens, and greater sphere of the country, over which the latter may be extended.

13. Sub Topic: Division • Enumerating the parts that make up our definition or the species of a genus. • Eg: the analysis of government into various species: monarchy, democracy, oligarchy, tyranny • Dividing and defining sometimes helps to throw light on the concept under consideration • Division can be used to set up the grounds for an argument:

14. Matthew Arnold “Literature and Science” • Deny the facts altogether, I think, he hardly can. He can hardly deny that when we set ourselves to enumerate the powers which go to the building up of human life, and say that they are the power of conduct, the power of intellect and knowledge, the power of beauty, and the power of social life and manners—he can hardly deny that this scheme, though drawn in rough and plain lines enough, and not pretending to scientific exactness, does yet give a fairly true representation of the matter. Human nature is built up by these powers; we have the need for them all. When we have rightly met and adjusted the claims of them all, we shall then be in a fair way of getting soberness and righteousness with wisdom. This is evident enough, and the friends of physical science would admit it.

15. Interpretation of Arnold • Arnold is using the division of the four powers to argue that an education in the humanities is superior to an exclusively scientific education, because the humanities can administer to the development of all of these powers in man, whereas an education in the natural sciences alone cannot.

16. Division • Division can also be used to set up an argument by elimination. • “A person is a citizen either by birth or by naturalization” – and then by proving (or disproving) these points. • If the defense attorney has taken care to address all the possible motives, it makes for a very persuasive argument. • A criminal defense attorney may use division like this: • A person in these circumstances might steal for any one of these reasons: (A) (B) (C) (D)…Now, we have firmly established that A and B could not possibly have been my client’s motives Furthermore, not even the prosecution has suggested in this trial that C or D could have been my client’s motives. Since none of the possible motives are applicable in this case, it is clear that my client is innocent of the charge of stealing.

17. In Class Assignment and Homework: Due Thursday • The Topic: Definition is a way to discover your argument. • For today, you’re going to define cruel and unusual punishment. • One way to approach this subject is to look at the subject’s history, just like we looked back at how the debate surrounding Lady Chatterley's Lover helped “frame” or “define” the idea of obscene material. • The first part of this assignment (due before class Thursday) is to research how America has defined “cruel and unusual punishment.” You need to do this for three different historical periods of time. Eg. (in the 1700, 1900 and modern eras). You may need to look at how England defined it too since we inherited our legal system from the British. The second part of this assignment asks you to agree or disagree with the how we did/do define cruel and unusual punishment. This will help you figure out the values and beliefs you hold as you begin to define the term for yourself. As you read the history and examples surrounding this term, take notes. Specify which parts you agree/disagree with and why. Cite.