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Chapter 28

Chapter 28. Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World. Popular Sovereignty. Ancient and medieval notions of kingship: “mandate of heaven,” “divine right of kings” Challenged by Enlightenment ideas about “natural rights” of the individual

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Chapter 28

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  1. Chapter 28 Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World

  2. Popular Sovereignty • Ancient and medieval notions of kingship: “mandate of heaven,” “divine right of kings” • Challenged by Enlightenment ideas about “natural rights” of the individual • Kings to be made responsible to subject populations • John Locke (1632-1704) • Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) • Argues that government derives power from consent of ruled • Individuals retain personal rights, give political rights to government that Locke calls a “Common-wealth” (which is not necessarily a democracy)

  3. Individual Freedoms • Voltaire (pen name of François-Marie Arouet, 1694-1778) • Championed religious freedom and freedom of expression • Écrasez l’infame: His slogan, “Let us crush the infamous thing!” referred to the Catholic authorities; he was a deist • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Argued for equality of all individuals, regardless of class, before the law • The Social Contract (1762), argues that society is collectively the sovereign

  4. Revolution in America Little indication of forthcoming revolution in mid-eighteenth century Thirteen colonies regarded themselves as British subjects Long cultural and personal connections with England Mutually profitable economic relationship between colonies and England with little governmental oversight: historians often refer to the first half of the 1700s as a period “benign neglect”

  5. French and Indian War, 1754-1763 • Expensive, extensive • Overlapped with Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) • Conflict in Europe, India & Caribbean • British victory ensured global dominance, North American prosperity

  6. Increased Taxation in 1760s • Bills come due from the Seven Years’ War • Tax burden falls to the colonies • Sugar Act (1764): Actually lowered the tax on molasses, but created an enforcement mechanism to crack down on rampant smuggling: tried not before a jury of peers, but naval officers. • Stamp Act (1765): First times the colonies try to coordinate their protests against British authorities with the Stamp Act Congress. • Quartering Act (1765): Housing of British troops • Tea Act (1773): British East India Company can sell tea directly to colonies at a lower rate; infuriates colonial merchants.

  7. The Declaration of Independence • British products boycotted, officials attacked • Protests • Boston Tea Party (1773), tea dumped into Boston harbor in protest against Tea Act • “Sons of Liberty” initiate protests, often dressed as Indians • Continental Congress formed (1774), coordinates colonists’ resistance to British policies • April 19, 1775: Battle of Lexington and Concord • June 14, 1775: Congress creates Continental Army; appoints Washington as its commander the following day • July 4, 1776, adopts Declaration of Independence • “Articles of Confederation” adopted; creates weak national government • Influence of Locke: retention of individual rights, sovereignty based on consent of the ruled

  8. Divided Loyalties • Patriots • Those who supported revolution, in majority • Loyalists (Tories) • Estimated 20 percent of white population that remained loyal to British monarchy; many in New York City, which was occupied by the British for most of the war. • Neutrals • Quakers: Their pacifism did not allow them to fight; patriots came to revile them because of this. • Divided • Native Americans, African-Americans: British offer emancipation to slaves if they fight for their side

  9. Revolutionary War • Colonies: • Logistical advantage; fighting on home turf • Popular support • Support of British rivals • George Washington (1732-1799) proves a charismatic leader, if not a militarily gifted one. • Britain: • Strong central government • Most powerful navy in the world, highly trained army • Loyalist population tended to be wealthy and influential

  10. The American Revolution

  11. Building an Independent State • War-weariness sets in by 1780 • British forces surrounded at Yorktown, Virginia • French Navy prevents British Navy from intervening • Cornwallis surrenders on October 19, 1781 • Treaty at Peace of Paris concluded in 1783 • Recognition of American independence • Tremendously favorable to the U.S. • 1787 Constitution of the United States drafted • Political and legal equality for men of property

  12. Building an Independent State • 1787 Constitution of the United States drafted in Philadelphia • Ratified in 1788, leading to first presidential election held from Dec. 15, 1788 to Jan. 10, 1789; Washington unopposed • Replaces the weak Articles of Confederation government, which had no executive branch or means to collect taxes. • Emphasizes political and legal equality for men of property • For the purpose of determining political representation in the House of Representatives, it counts slaves as “three-fifths” of a human being. • Bill of Rights proposed by James Madison in First Congress in 1789 and were ratified as the first ten amendments to the Constitution by 1791

  13. Building an Independent State • Bill of Rights (adopted 1791) • First - Free Speech • Second - State militias and right to bear arms • Third - Protection from quartering troops • Fourth - Protection from unreasonable search and seizure • Fifth - Requiring due process, disallows double jeopardy or self-incrimination, and requires compensation for eminent domain. • Sixth - Pertains criminal trials: right to trial by jury, rights of the accused, and right to counsel • Seventh - Civil trial procedure • Eighth - Prohibits excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishment • Nine - Protection of rights not enumerated in the Constitution: if there not there, it doesn’t mean they don’t exist. • Tenth - Rights not given to the U.S. government in the Constitution are given over the states.

  14. The French Revolution • Serious fiscal problems in France • War debts crush French economy in 1780s • Fifty percent of tax revenues to war debts • Twenty-five percent of tax revenues to military • Greater degree of social inequality in France than in the thirteen colonies that became the U.S. • Leads to revolution more radical than the American one • Repudiation of many aspects of the ancien régime • Execution of the king and anti-Church violence

  15. The Estates General • Estates General founded 1303, but had not met since 1614 • Louis XVI calls it into session on May 5, 1789, to address massive financial problems and unwillingness of nobility to pay taxes. • Three Estates • First estate: Roman Catholic clergy • 100,000 • Second estate: nobles • 400,000 • Third estate: everyone else • 24,000,000 serfs, free peasants, urban residents • One vote per estate

  16. 1789: The Revolution Underway • Third estate demands greater social change • First and Second refuse to budge • In June, third estate secedes from Estates General • Renamed “National Assembly” • In July, mob attacks the Bastille in Paris, a hated symbol of royal authority; bloody battle won by mob

  17. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen • Adopted by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789 • American influence • Equality of men • Women not included: Olympe de Gouges (Marie Gouze) unsuccessfully attempts to redress this in 1791 (eventually guillotined) • Sovereignty resides in the people • Individual rights articulated and written down

  18. Radicalization of Revolution “Liberty, equality, fraternity” becomes revolutionary slogan New constitution created in 1791 that retains the king, but subject to legislative authority and convenes a new Legislative Assembly: constitutional monarchy June 1791: The King and Queen try to flee to Austria, but are captured; increasingly the left—the Jacobins—see them as traitors New Legislative Assembly seizes church lands, redefines clergy as civilians April 1792: Guillotine introduced a more humane and socially equalizing method of execution

  19. Radicalization of Revolution Ending the Monarchy: In August 1792, a Parisian mob invades the royal palace in Paris, the Tuileries, and demands the monarchy end Convention: In response, the Legislative Assembly calls for a convention to create a new constitution without a king. This body is elected by universal male suffrage and becomes revolutionary France’s executive power, and is more radical than its previous legislative bodies Country at War: In 1792, France declares war on Austria, and soon Prussia joins Austria; Prussian and Austrians invade France in August, but are turned back by the French in September at Valmy. Levée en masse: Government encourages mass conscription for war; beginnings of a true French nationalism to defend la patrie 1793 Executions: King Louis is executed in January and Queen Marie Antoinette follows him October; these acts turn all of Europe against France. Britain and Netherlands join the fight against France.

  20. Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) • “The Incorruptible,” leader of the Committee of Public Safety • Leader of Jacobin party • Dominated Convention, 1793-1794 • Churches closed, priests forced to marry • Promoted “cult of reason” as secular alternative to Christianity • Calendar reorganized: Ten-day weeks, 1792 is proclaimed Year I • Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000

  21. Execution and Terror Anti-Robespierre political cartoon: Robespierre executing the executioner Execution of Louis XVI on Jan. 21, 1792

  22. Revolutionary Calendar Names of Months: Autumn: Vendémiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire Winter: Nivôse, Pluviôse,Ventôse Spring: Germinal, Floréal, Prairial Summer: Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor British Parody: Autumn: Wheezy, Sneezy, Freezy Winter: Slippy, Drippy, Nippy Spring: Showery, Flowery, Bowery Summer: Hoppy, Croppy, Poppy

  23. The Directory (1795-1799) French population tire of Robespierre’s “Reign of Terror”; want more stability 1794 Robespierre arrested and beaten, then sent to guillotine Men of property take power in the form of the Directory Unable to solve economic and military problems of revolutionary France

  24. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) From minor Corsican noble family Army officer under King Louis XVI, general at age 24 Brilliant military strategist Overthrew Directory in 1799 Established new government, the Consulate Crowned himself emperor in 1802

  25. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Coronation of Napoleon (1805-1807) by Jacques Louis-David

  26. Napoleonic France • Agreement with Pope: Concordat (1801) • France retains church lands, but pay salaries to clergy • Freedom of religion, also for Protestants, Jews • 1804 promulgates Napoleonic Code • Patriarchal authority: made father the ruler of the household, also made property rights absolute • Became model for many civil codes in conquered areas across Europe • Tight control on newspapers, use of secret police

  27. Napoleon’s Empire • Conquered Iberian, Italian peninsulas, Netherlands • Forced Austria and Prussia to enter into alliance • Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 • Burned Moscow, but defeated by Russian weather • British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies force Napoleon to abdicate in 1814 • Exiled to Mediterranean Island of Elba, escaped to take power again for 100 days • Defeated by British at Waterloo, exiled to remote South Pacific island of St. Helena and dies there in 1821

  28. Napoleon’s Empire in 1812

  29. The Revolution in Haiti • Only successful slave revolt • Island of Hispaniola • Spanish colony Santo Domingo in east (now Dominican Republic) • French colony of Saint-Domingue in west (now Haiti) • Rich Caribbean colony • Sugar, coffee, cotton • Almost one-third of France’s overseas trade

  30. Society in Saint-Domingue • 40,000 white French settlers • Dominated social structure • 28,000 gens de couleur (free people of color, i.e. mixed-race, freed slaves) • Holders of small plots • 500,000 slaves • High mortality rate, many flee to mountains • “Maroons,” escaped slaves

  31. The Revolt • Inspired by American and French revolutions • 500 gens de couleur sent to fight British in American War of Independence • 1789 white settlers demand self-rule, but with no equality for gens de couleur • 1791 civil war breaks out • Slaves revolt under Vodou priest named Boukman • French, British, Spanish forces attempt to intervene • French forces dealt major setback by Toussaint and Yellow Fever in 1798

  32. François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803) Renames himself Louverture (“the opening”) in 1791 Descendant of slaves, freed in 1776 Helped his original owners escape, then joined rebel forces Built army of 20,000, eventually dominated Saint-Domingue 1801 promulgated constitution of equality 1802 forced to surrender to Napoleon’s forces and was captured, died in the dungeon of a remote fortress in France in 1803 French troops driven out, 1804 Haiti declares independence

  33. Latin American Society • 30,000 peninsulares, colonial officials from Iberian peninsula • 3.5 million criollos (creoles), born in the Americas of Spanish or Portuguese descent • Privileged class, but grievances with peninsulares • 1810-1825 led movements for creole-dominated republics • 10 million others • African slaves, mixed-race populations

  34. Mexican Independence • Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority in colonies • Priest Miguel de Hidalgo (1753-1811) leads revolt • Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues • Creole general Augustín de Iturbide (1783-1824) declares independence in 1821 • Installs self as emperor, deposed in 1823, republic established • Southern regions form federation, then divide into Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica

  35. Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) • Led independence movement in South America • Native of Caracas (Venezuela), influenced by Enlightenment, George Washington • Rebels against Spanish rule 1811, forced into hiding • Forms alliances with many creole leaders • José de San Martín (Argentina, 1778-1850) • Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile, 1778-1842) • Spanish rule destroyed in South America by 1825

  36. Gran Colombia • Bolívar hoped to form a U.S.-style federation • Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador form Gran Colombia • Attempts to bring in Peru and Bolivia • Strong political differences force Gran Colombia to begin to disintegrate in 1826: “All who have served the Revolution have plowed the sea.” • Bolívar goes was about to go into exile in Europe, but dies of tuberculosis in 1830 at age 47

  37. Brazilian Independence • Napoleon’s invasion sends Portuguese royal court to exile in Rio de Janeiro • 1821, king returns to Portugal, his son Pedro left behind as regent • Pedro negotiates with creoles, declares independence of Brazil—no violent revolution • Becomes Emperor Pedro I (r. 1822-1834) • Social structure remains largely intact

  38. Latin America in 1830

  39. Emergence of Ideologies • Reactions and responses to French Revolution largely create our modern thinking about political ideology • Conservatism • Edmund Burke (England, 1729-1797) • Disavowed rapid revolutionary change; horrified by French Revolution but in favor of the American one • Favored slow evolution of society • Liberalism • Sees conservatives as defenders of an illegitimate status quo • Advocates managing, not stifling, social change • John Stuart Mill (England, 1806-1873): formulated a theory of liberty, advocated human rights, women’s rights, and stood against slavery

  40. The End of the Slave Trade • Campaign to end slavery begins in eighteenth century • Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797) • Gains momentum after American, French and Haitian revolutions • William Wilberforce (England, 1759-1833), philanthropist, succeeds in having Parliament outlaw slave trade, 1807 • Other states follow suit, but illegal trade continues until 1867

  41. End of the Institution of Slavery • Haiti: slavery ends with revolution • Mexican slavery abolished 1829 • Partially to stop U.S. development of slave-based cotton industry in Mexico • 1833 Britain abolishes slavery, offers compensation to former owners • Other states follow, but offer freedom without equality • Property requirements, literacy tests, etc. block voting

  42. Enlightenment Ideals and Women • Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding women’s rights • Rousseau argues women should receive education to prepare for lives as wives and mothers • Mary Astell (England, 1666-1731) argues that women essentially born into slavery; uses Lockean argument • Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797) • A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792): Women could contribute as much to society as women if they were given the same access to education

  43. Women and Revolution • Women active in all phases of French revolution • Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for food • Republican Revolutionary Women patrol streets of Paris with firearms • Yet hold few official positions of authority • Revolution grants equality in education, property, legalized divorce • Yet women not allowed to vote, major task of nineteenth century • Elizabeth Cady Stanton (U.S., 1815-1902): Was first an abolitionist, but then became a crusader for women’s rights when she was denied entrance to a abolitionist conference in London

  44. Nations and Nationalism • “Nation” a type of community, especially prominent in nineteenth century • Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities • Usually based on shared language, customs, values, historical experience • Sometimes common religion • Idea of nation has immediate relationship with political boundaries

  45. Types of Nationalism • Cultural nationalism • Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the Volk (“people”) • Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist: “spirit of the people” • Political nationalism • Movement for political independence of nation from other authorities • Unification of national lands • Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”

  46. Nationalism and Anti-Semitism Nationalist ideologies distrustful of indigenous minorities Pogroms, violent attacks on Jewish communities in Russian empire beginning 1881: Jews excluded from the “nation” Anti-Semitism rallying cry of many European nationalists French military Captain Alfred Dreyfus framed for selling military secrets to Germany, convicted in 1894 Eventually exonerated, but great debate on loyalty of Jews in European societies

  47. Zionism • Theodor Herzl (Austria, 1860-1904) journalist at Dreyfus trial • Observed intense anti-Semitism of mobs in Paris, concluded that the Enlightenment and revolution could not solve this human ill • Worked to create refuge for Jews by re-establishing Jewish state in Palestine • Zion synonymous with Jerusalem • 1897 convened first World Zionist Organization

  48. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) Meeting after defeat of Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 1773-1859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s empire Established balance of power Worked to suppress development of nationalism among multi-national empires like the Austrian

  49. Nationalist Rebellions • Greeks in Balkan peninsula seek independence from Ottoman Turks in 1821 • With European help, Greece achieves independence in 1830 • Rebellions all over Europe, especially in 1848 • Rebels take Vienna, Metternich resigns and flees • But rebellions put down by 1849 • France: Napoleon III stages a coup d’état by 1851.

  50. Unifications of Italy and Germany • Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical states • Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous jurisdictions • Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification • Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under King Vittore Emmanuele II

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