Chapter 10

1. Minority Youth & Crime Chapter 10

2. Explain how the patterns of victimization and offending for white and minority youth are similar to or different than the patterns for adults. Explain why racial and ethnic differences in violent victimization disappear when the youth’s family and community are taken into account. Discuss the social contexts in which violence against African American girls emerged, according to Jody Miller’s work, Getting Played. Assess the various explanations for racial/ethnic differences in rates of violent offending among youth. Chapter Goals

3. Synthesize research findings on juveniles of color and the police. • Evaluate competing arguments regarding police use of gang databases. • Summarize the results of research investigating the effect of race/ethnicity on decision making in the juvenile justice system. • Explain the concept of “cumulative disadvantage” and discuss its application to the juvenile justice system. • Discuss the controversy surrounding the transfer of juveniles to adult court. • Explain why African American and Hispanic juveniles are treated more harshly than similarly situated white juveniles. Chapter Goals

4. 2001 – Lionel Tate, a 12-year-old African American • Killed 6-year-old friend demonstrating wrestling move he saw on TV • Waived to adult court • Convicted of 1st degree murder and sentenced to life without parole • Overturned by Florida appellate court and offered a retrial because his competency to stand trial had not been evaluated. A 21st Century Reality

5. Plea-Bargain - Pled guilty to second-degree murder in exchange for a sentence to time served (which was about 3 years), plus 1 year of house arrest and 10 hours of probation. • 2005 – Committed a robbery. In 2006 he was sentenced to 30 years in prison on a gun possession charge and in 2008 he was sentenced to 10 years in prison for the robbery • 2001 - Nathaniel Brazill, a 13-year-old African American • Shot and killed Barry Grunow, a popular 30-year-old seventh grade teacher at a middle school in Lake Worth, Florida • Waived to adult court • Convicted of 2nd degree murder and sentenced to 28 years without the possibility of parole Lionel Tate (continued)

6. Mandated that states receiving federal funding demonstrate efforts to reduce disparity • States that fail to address disparate rates may forfeit 20% of federal funding • Research has demonstrated differential treatment within the juvenile justice system for youth of color • 2003 – African American youths were detained at four times the rate of white youth and Hispanic youth at twice the rate. • 61% of those in detention were youth of color Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 2002

7. There is little data on victimization of racial/ethnic juveniles • Some sources we can use • National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) • National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) • FBI Supplemental Homicide Reports (SHR) Juveniles as Crime Victims

8. Property Crime Victimization (1996-1997) NCVS data • 1 in 6 juveniles is a victim of property crime • 40% higher than the rate for adults • African American juveniles more likely to be victimized than white juveniles • Non-Hispanic juveniles more likely to be victimized than Hispanic juveniles NIBRS data • Greater risk for victimization in areas with higher rates of property crime Young Racial Minorities as Victims & Offenders

9. Violent Crime • Younger people have higher victimization rate • 2007 – Ages 12-15 – Per 1,000 • 46.1 for African American males, 47.9 for white males, 46.2 for African American females, and 36.1 for white females • Hispanics & African Americans more likely to be victimized with a weapon than whites Victims & Offenders

10. All males have similar risk of non-stranger violence White males at less risk of stranger violence Hispanic & African American females at more risk of stranger violence Some attribute problems to social issues in disadvantaged communities Victims & Offenders

11. Homicide Victimization • Supplemental Homicide Report data (1990 – 2005) • African Americans overrepresented as crime victims • Males - Rate is 6-7 times greater than for white males • Females – Rate is 4 times greater than for white females • Until 2005 – African American females had higher rates of homicide victimization than white males • Lauritsen (1995) asserts… • “Race/ethnicity-linked” differences in families & communities influence problem • African American and Hispanic youth have greater risks for violent victimization than white youth because they are more likely than white youth to spend time away from home, to live in single-parent families, to have less stable living arrangements, and to live in disadvantaged communities Victims & Offenders

12. Juveniles as Offenders • Some assert… • Data based on arrest statistics & perceptions of crime victims is accurate • Some assert… • Data based on arrest statistics & perceptions of crime victims is biased • Researchers should use population of convicted offenders Victims & Offenders

13. Juvenile Arrests - Uniform Crime Report (2009) • African American youth • 51.2% of arrests for violent Index Crimes • 58% of arrests for homicide • 67.3%% of arrests for robbery • 33.2% of arrests for serious property crime • Overrepresented among arrestees for a number of these less serious offenses, including gambling (92.7 percent), prostitution (58.4 percent), offenses involving stolen property (43.6 percent), disorderly conduct (41.4 percent), other assaults (39.2 percent), weapons offenses (33.2 percent), fraud (36.0 percent), embezzlement (33.3 percent), and drug abuse violations (25.6 percent). • Native American youth • 1% of juvenile population • 1.5% of arrestees Victims & Offenders

14. Juvenile Arrests - Uniform Crime Report (2009) • Asian/Pacific Islander youth • Overrepresented within status offense (running away) • White Youth • Overrepresented for driving under the influence, liquor law violations, and drunkenness • Make up 90% of arrestees in these categories • African Americans made up fewer than 9 percent of juveniles arrested for these offenses. Victims & Offenders

15. Miller (2008) - Getting Played: African American Girls, Urban Inequality, and Gendered Violence • Focuses on young girls’ victimization experiences in their neighborhoods, their schools, and their relationships • Witnessed violence against other women that occurred in public view, were subjected to sexual come-ons by young men and to sexual harassment by adult men, and faced an ongoing risk of sexual assault and sexual coercion Victimization of Young African-American Girls

16. Young women who defended themselves in situations faced, hostile confrontations from young males, and were rarely taken serious when reporting issues to school personnel • Half of the girls experienced sexual coercion or sexual assault and one-third reported multiple experiences with sexual victimization • Males did not see it as sexual violence but as persuasion Victimization of Young African-American Girls (cONTINUED)

17. Self-Reported Violent Behavior • McNulty and Bellair (2003) • Native American adolescents were the most likely to have engaged in violent behavior (mean = .66), followed by Hispanics (.45), African Americans (.43), whites (.30), and Asians (.17). Victims & Offenders

18. Homicide Offenders • Supplemental Homicide Reports (1980 to 2005) • Homicide offense rate over time highest for African American males • 2005 - African American males were 8 times more likely than young white males, 16 times more likely than young African American females, and more than 60 times more likely then young white females to commit homicide • Most homicides intraracial, not interracial • Rates have declined dramatically after 1995 • African American males, 194.0 in 1990, 178.6 in 1995, 63.2 in 2000, and 64.1 in 2005. • White males the rates fell from 22.0 (1990 and 1995) to 7.9 (2005). Victims & Offenders

19. Explaining Differences in Violent Behavior • Many theories address social disorganization • Individual and family level risk factors • Weakened family attachments and weak bonds to school and work • Involvement with delinquent peers and gangs • Economic impact • Political and cultural realities impact social disorganization • Disadvantaged communities will have greater social disorganization Victims & Offenders

20. McNulty and Bellair (2003) • Statistical differences between whites and minority groups for violence are explained by variation in • Community disadvantage (for blacks) • Involvement in gangs (for Hispanics) • Social bonds (for Native Americans) • Situational variables (for Asians) Victims & Offenders

21. Race, Crime and the Media • Dorfman and Schiraldi (2001) • Reviewed over 70 studies focusing on crime in the news • Asked the following questions • Does news coverage reflect actual crime trends? How does news coverage depict minority crime? Does news coverage disproportionately depict youth of color as perpetrators of crime • While crime dropped 20 percent from 1990 to 1998, crime news coverage increased by over 80 percent. • 75 percent of the studies found that minorities were overrepresented as perpetrators; over 80 percent of the studies found that more attention was paid to white victims than to minority victims. Victims & Offenders

22. Juveniles have more contacts than adults with police • Some factors… • Poor spend more time in public • Street corners as “private space” of gangs • Middle-class & wealthy have more access to travel, private space • Summer camp • Backyard Juveniles of Color & Police

23. Juveniles tend to have lower opinion of police • Young African Americans have most negative attitude towards police • Negative attitudes influence arrest rates • Poor relations result in hostile encounters, increasing chance of arrest • BUT, white youth more likely than African American youth to be arrested • Pope and Snyder (2003) • White juveniles were significantly more likely than African American juveniles to be arrested: whites made up 69.2 percent of all juvenile offenders (based on victim’s perceptions), but 72.7 percent of all juvenile offenders who were arrested. Juveniles of Color & Police

24. IADP • Intake • Adjudication • Disposition • Post-Adjudicatory Review Juvenile Justice Process

25. Parens Patrie • Guiding philosophy of JJ system • Greater chance of racial discrimination in JJ system due to more extensive use of discretion • Gender, race, & ethnicity are easily factored into decision-making process Research provides evidence of racial discrimination in Juvenile Justice system Race/Ethnicity & Juvenile Justice System

26. Disproportionate Minority Confinement (DMC) • 2005 • Total delinquency case rate for African American juveniles (108.4) was more than twice the rate for white juveniles (44.4) and for Native American juveniles (53.3); the delinquency case rate for Asian juveniles was only 17.2 Race/Ethnicity & Juvenile Justice System

27. Disproportionate Minority Confinement (DMC) • Detained prior to juvenile court disposition • African Americans • Petitioned to juvenile court & waived to adult court • African Americans • Males and Macallair (1996) – California Study - African Americans were 12 times more likely to be waived to adult court • Placed in juvenile facility • African Americans • Placed on probation • White • Adjudicated “delinquent” • White Race/Ethnicity & Juvenile Justice System

28. Juvenile Transfer to Criminal Court • Influences on youth transfer rate • Increase in youth crimes • 100-percent increase between 1985-1994 • 18-percent decrease between 1994-2003 • Delinquency cases waived to criminal court • 80-percent increase between 1985-1994 • 51-percent decrease between 1994-2001 • Increase in media coverage & public access to information • Transfer decisions impact sentencing outcomes • Fagan (1991) • Youth processed in criminal courts were twice as likely as those processed in juvenile courts to be incarcerated. Race/Ethnicity & Juvenile Justice System

29. Waives a juvenile to adult criminal court • Often once waived subsequent offenses return to adult court • State eligibility varies • Mandated often if violent crimes or in some cases any felony offense • Range from no age limit to 18 Juvenile Waivers

30. Explaining Disparate Treatment of Juvenile Offenders • Secret & Johnson (1997) • Juvenile court judges might consider “race/ethnicity” either as a + or – in decision-making • Judges create a mental map of the accused person’s underlying character” and to predict his/her future behavior • Impact of other variables as well • Similar to adult courts Race/Ethnicity & Juvenile Justice System

31. Bridges and Steen (1998) • Studied probation officer’s written accounts of the decisions made about cases – Juvenile court judges typically follow the sentencing recommendations. • 233 narrative reports analyzed for officers’ attributions • African American children – negative attitudinal traits and personality defects • White children – offenses believed to be primarily caused by external environmental factors (e.g., drug abuse, peer influence (negative), family dysfunction) Race/Ethnicity & Juvenile Justice System

32. Non-white youth overrepresented at all stages of the JJ system Recent decline in white youth, increase in African American youth Juveniles Under Correctional Supervision

33. How do race/ethnicity apply to kids who commit crimes and how they are perceived? • Juveniles of color at most risk of victimization • Most presume typical juvenile offender is of color • Data show typical juvenile offender is white (except for serious index crimes) • Juvenile Justice system mirrors CJ system • Minority youth are substantially more likely than white youth to be detained pending disposition, adjudicated delinquent, and waived to adult court • Sentenced more harshly than their white counterparts, at least in part because of the tendency of criminal justice officials to attribute their crimes to internal (personality) rather than external (environmental) causes. Conclusion

34. Key Terms • Juvenile • Adolescent • Transfer • Delinquent • Victimization • Offending • Index Crimes • Juvenile court • Demonize • Juvenile facility • Disparate • Legal custody • Detention • Formally processed • Family • Social disorganization • Behavior • Violent crime • Property crime