EDU 547 Thursday, February 13 .2014

1. Chapter IVIndividuals in Schools Presented by: Kathleen Merchant Instructor: Dr. Lauren Larsen EDU 547Thursday, February 13 .2014

2. To gain a better understanding of students, teachers and administrators as persons within the school social system is to examine/observe: • Needs • Beliefs • Goals • Motivation-driven by all of the above Needs

3. Hierarchy of Needs: Basic Needs Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is based on the following assumptions: Individuals needs are universal and arranged in hierarchy, unfilled needs lead individuals to focus on those needs more and lower level needs must be largely satisfied prior to the fulfillment of higher-level needs.

4. (Hertzberg, Mausner, And Snyderman , 1959) developed a theory of motivation and job satisfaction. The results of the study led them to the conclusion that individuals exhibit positive attitudes if the individual's need for self-actualization or as Hertzberg states “there is psychological growth” • This theory is also known as motivation-hygiene theory, two- factor theory, dual factor theory, and simply Hertzberg’s theory • Basic assumptions of the theory: • There are two separate sets of factors in explaining work satisfaction and dissatisfaction • Motivators are more likely to produce satisfaction, whereas hygiene factors tend to produce dissatisfaction • Work satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites, but rather separate and distinct dimension Needs and Worker Satisfaction

5. David McClelland’s (1961,1965,1985) achievement motivation theory, ordinarily referred to as "need achievement theory” can be defined as; the need to accomplish hard tasks, overcome difficulties/hindrances and to excel in the need for achievement-not some other reward Need for Achievement: Achievement Motivation Theory

6. Three characteristics of individuals who are high in achievement motivation: • Strong desire to assume personal responsibility • Establish moderately difficult goals and assume intermediate levels of risk • Intense desire for feedback McClelland’s Hypothesis

7. Desire to have a choice in what people do and how they desire to do it. • Richard deCharms(1976, 1993) utilized the simile of “origins” and “pawns” to describe and differentiate persons with self-determination and those without determination • The need for autonomy, achievement, social relations, self- esteem, and self-actualization are a few of the essential needs that influence teachers and administrators perceptions and intellectual understanding of their roles their organization • Note*Beliefs are important factors that explain motivation Need for Autonomy

8. Beliefs-are general understandings or generalizations about the world; in other words they are what person hold to be true • They play a crucial role in motivating individuals with their actions • Some of these are beliefs that control a person’s behavior are; casuality,fairness,intelligence, the consequences of their actions and the capability to control one’s destiny Beliefs

9. Attribution Theory-casual explanations that a person makes about past behaviors, most notably when referring to achievement and expectations • Investigating what happen and why it happened • Dimensions of Causality(Weiner,1985,1986, 1992, 1994a, 1994b, 2000)-individuals attribute their success/failures to one of the causes listed which can be characterized in three dimensions: • Locus-the location and cause(internal vs. external) • Stability- causes are constant of change over time (stable vs. variable) • Responsibility-personal responsibility, that is, whether or not the individual can control the cause (controllable vs. uncontrollable) Beliefs about Causality: Attribution Theory (anchored in beliefs)

10. Each one of the three dimensions has an important connection to motivation, because they have the propensity to generate emotional reactions to a persons success/failure Locus is closely related to self-esteem e.g. if success is attributed to internal factors then success produces pride on the contrary failure diminishes self- esteem(internal vs. external ) Stability is closely tied to emotions e.g. if failure occurs the individual experiences feelings of hopelessness ,apathy and resignation Responsibility is closely linked to a set of social emotions that includes guilt, shame, pity and anger. Dimensions of Causality

11. Some of the most powerful attributions that affect motivation and behavior are belief about ones ability • Adults have two general views of ability According to Dweck, (1999,2000), • Stable view of ability (entity view)- ability is stable and uncontrollable trait-a quality of person that cannot be altered • Incremental view of ability-ability is unstable and controllable- an increased pool of knowledge and skills Beliefs about Ability

13. Theorists (Greenberg,1993a;Tyler, 1994;Folger,2005), noted that inequity as the basic unfairness in the workplace, concentrates on perceived fairness-a persons beliefs about whether or not they are being treated fairly or not • Procedures used to allocate resources is called procedural justice One of the possible consequences derived from the feeling of inequity is reduced motivation e.g. seeking of increase benefits, quit and find another job and decrease job productivity • Organizational justice- institutional members perceptions of fairness in the institution, which includes distributive justice and procedural justice *Refer to page 153 Figure 4.4-to review the 10 principals to guide administrative behavior Beliefs about Fairness: Equity Theory and Organizational Justice

14. Is one of the most reliable and valid justifications of what motivates individuals to work • Vroom( 1964) Expectancy theory rests on two essential premises: (1) Individuals make decisions as it relates to their behaviors in an institution by utilizing their abilities to think, reason, and anticipate future events (2) Individuals values and attitudes interact with environmental components, such as; role expectations and school culture to influence behavior Beliefs about Outcomes: Expectancy Theory

15. This theory builds on the following assumptions with three basic concepts: • Expectancy- is the extent to which a person thinks that hard work will lead to enhanced performance • Instrumentality-is the perceived likelihood that good performance will be noticed and rewarded • Valence-is the perceived value/attractiveness of a reward Beliefs about Outcomes: Expectancy Theory cont.

16. Personal efficacy is probably the most influential when compared to self-knowledge and self-regulation • Self-efficacy-is an individual's judgment about his/her capability to organize and perform a particular course of action that is required to accomplish a certain level of performance • How can a person develop self efficacy? Performance feedback, previous history and social influences • Four primary sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences,, modeling, verbal persuasion, and physiological stimulation Beliefs about Capabilities: Self Efficacy Theory

17. Rotter(1996), noted that the Rand Cooperation defined teacher efficacy as “the extent to which teachers believed that they could control the reinforcement of their actions” (as cited in Hoy and Miskel 2008, p. 160). • Hoy, A., Hoy A., and Tschannen Moran ( 1998) developed an integrated Model of Perceived Efficacy for Teaching –which is “the teacher’s belief in his/her capability to organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context” (p. 160). Note* Teacher efficacy may change from one situation to a next • Refer to teacher efficacy questions on page 162 in text Self Efficacy of Teachers

18. A goal is a future state that a person is striving to achieve aims/outcomes a person would like to achieve • Lock and Latham ( 1990) suggested two dimensions to goals: • Goal content-is the object or result being sought, varies from specific to abstract • Goal intensity-the effort necessary to form the goal and the importance assigned and the commitment to the goal Goal Setting Theory

19. (Locke,1968;Locke and Latham,1984,1990,2005;Latham,2000) are all recognized for the expansion of the goal setting theory • Locke and Latham( 1990) noted that successful goals must meet the following criterias: • Be specific • Challenging • Attainable • Committed Locke and Latham (1990) utilizes four goal methods to clarify why there is a positive effect of goals on action, which are as follows • Increase attention • Increase efforts expended on activities • Increase persistence • Development of specific tasks strategies Goal Setting Theory

20. The literature has demonstrated how needs, beliefs and goals are all significant aspects of motivation • Motivation-is an internal state that arouse, directs and maintains behavior • Work motivation- a set of vigorous forces, which originates within or as well as beyond an individuals being, to initiate work related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity and duration (Pinder 1984, p.8) • Intrinsic motivation-motivation that derives from factors such as interest and curiosity • Extrinsic motivation-is based on rewards and punishments Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

21. Leadership is about making others better as a result of your presence and making sure that impact lasts in your absence…. In closing