Theory of Social Influence

1. Theory of Social Influence The group

2. Definition: • Social influence is defined as change in an individual’s thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors that results from interaction with another individual or a group. • By understanding social influence, you might be able to ignore peer pressure and manipulation.

3. Areas of Social Influence: • Conformity • Compliance/Power • Authority/Obedience

4. Conformity • Conformity occurs when an individual expresses a particular opinion or behavior in order to fit in to a given situation or to meet the expectations of a given other, though he does not necessarily hold that opinion or believe that the behavior is appropriate.

5. This plays to belonging and esteem as we seek the approval/friendship of others. We will even change our beliefs and values to be like those of our peers and admired superiors.

6. Compliance/Power • Power is the ability to force or coerce someone in a particular way by controlling her outcomes. • A person does something that they are asked to do by another. The thoughts of social reward/punishment may lead them to compliance when they really do not want to comply. • For instance, many individuals pay taxes for fear of fines and imprisonment.

7. Authority/Obedience • Authority is power that is believed to be legitimate (rather than coercive) by those who are subjected to it. • In society, individuals such as, politicians and teachers are seen as authority figures. Part of conformity involves obeying them. • However, in Compliance, you have some choice but no choice in Obedience.

8. Social Influence Defined • Social influence is the process by which group members influence one another’s opinions. • Researchers posit that the process of social influence is part of the overall process that a group uses to “formulate” a decision based on the members’ opinions. • Choice dilemmas involve two options: • Attractive Outcome – only some probability of success (“risky” choice). • Less Attractive Outcome – will definitely succeed (safe or “cautious” choice).

9. Group Polarization • Prediscussional Opinions impact on Possible Outcomes (Decisions) • All members have the same opinion. • Some group members tend toward risk and some tend toward caution. • All group members are on one side, either risk or caution. • Risky Shift – eventual decision is riskier than the mathematical average would predict. • Cautious Shift – when groups make more cautious decisions than individuals.

10. Risky Shifts Explained • Diffusion of Responsibility • Don’t worry about possible negative consequences because group can diffuse responsibility for the decision. • Familiarization • Anxiety about possible consequences of a risky decision decreases as people become familiar with choice dilemma. • Leadership Theories • Focus is on how specific members influence groups (power, conformity, deviance) • Value Theory • Individuals take more chances in the presence of others than they would take alone.

11. Group Polarization • Are group decisions usually more extreme than the individual members’ prediscussion judgments? • The study of group polarization can lead to a general theory of social influence in groups. • Choice dilemmas help scholars examine and theorize about group polarization, and group polarization helps them look at social influence.

12. General Social Influence Theories • No Social Influence (social decision schemes) • Opinion Expression (social comparison) • New Information (persuasive arguments) • Opinion Expression and New Information • Structurational Theory (group discussion)

13. #1 - Group Decisions WITHOUT Social Influence • Social influence is NOT important in group decision making. • Groups come to their decisions by combining prediscussional opinions. • Conclusions are based solely on an arithmetic average. • SOCIAL DECISION SCHEMES – rules that groups use to combine individual members’ decisions into a group decision • “Majority Model” • NOT a good explanation of the process by which groups make decisions!

14. #2 - Social Influence from Opinion Expression • Social influence happens when group members listen to one another express opinions about the available options. • Social influence occurs because people want to agree with the majority. • Learning about other people’s opinions is enough to bring about social influence. • Deliberation is important. • Social comparison approach – valence of risk • Viable – but INCOMPLETE (does not explain WHY the group polarization effect occurs.

15. #3 – Social Influence From New Information • Social influence is important in the decision-making process. • Group members talk about their opinions during meetings and establish advantages and disadvantages of each option. • Group uses the members’ new opinions to help it decide on the best option. • Group members REQUIRE new information before social influence can occur. • Persuasive Arguments Approach • “Hidden Profile Effect” – risky arguments remain hidden.

16. #4 – Social Influence from Opinion Expression AND New Information • Combined Social Comparison / Persuasive Arguments • BOTH opinion expression and new information can affect the opinions of group members. • Social influence is a result of two aspects of group interaction: • Social comparison process that leads to biased group discussion. • New (but often biased) information that group members learn from one another when they discuss the options. • What members think BEFORE group discussion is important—early opinions and arguments predict a group’s decision. • Input-Process-Output Model of Group Discussion • Social comparison theory combines with persuasive arguments theory to account for group polarization. • Good SUPPORTING EVIDENCE to Support Proposal • Ability to explain social influence in general.

17. #5 – Social Influence from GROUP DISCUSSION • Group discussion itself has a larger role in the influence process • Structurational Theory • When people come into groups they already have opinions about what they like best. • What HAPPENS during group discussion is of utmost importance. • Members’ initial opinions may relate only slightly to their final opinions. • FOCUS on CONTENT of group discussion (not on prediscussional opinions) to predict outcomes • Cannot explain why participants bring up new arguments any better than persuasive arguments theory. • Should group discussion be given such a large role in the social influence process?

18. The Valence Model • All proposals in groups have levels of acceptability, which group discussion both governs and reflects. • Positive and Negative Evaluations of Ideas • “Thresholds of Acceptability”

19. Social Influence Conclusions • No single theory about group polarization is absolutely successful. • Valid theories regarding group decision making must account for two (2) propositions: • Individual opinions are most important ; group decisions are primarily a result of the opinions of group members. • Individual opinions CHANGE as a result of group discussion (social learning).

20. Social shaping of Technology • Technology in society refers to cyclical co-dependence, co-influence, co-production of technology and society upon the other  • 2 main theories: • Technology determinism: technology develops autonomously, separate from social evolution. "inherently dynamic and self-augmenting.“ • Social Construction: Human action shapes technology. “Best” technology is relative, and stakeholders involved in using and defining the criteria should also be studied.

21. Choice: Choice is inherent in both the design of individual components and systems, and in the making of each. (Williams & Edge 1996), • Society also controls technology through the choices it makes. • Channels of distribution • Cultural beliefs • Economic values • Effects of technology: Intended and Unintended

22. Social Factors: Values • Two way relation between Values and implementation of technology: Changing expectations and realities. 3 main world views • Mechanistic world view: Viewing the universe as a collection of parts, that can be individually analyzed and understood (McGinn 1991). This is a form of reductionism that is rare nowadays. Human intellect is able to comprehend everything. The synergy between the sum of the parts is also interpreted by human intellect. That is, no divine or vital principle or essence is involved. • Efficiency: Originally only applied to machines. Each element is expected to attain a higher percentage of its maximal possible performance, output, or ability. (McGinn1991) • Social progress: Belief in the existence, and need for social progress. Cyclical movement prevalent in the Pre-Industrial Era.

23. Social Factors: Ethics • 4 main ethical implications: • Challenges traditional ethical norms. Change in relationships between individuals • Creates an aggregation of effects. Detrimental effects small but cumulative • Changes the distribution of justice. those with technology tend to have higher access to justice systems. • Provides great power. Provides strategic advantage to the most technologically developed entity.

24. Diffusion of Innovations • Theory of how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures • Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

25. Key Elements • Innovation Rogers defines an innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. • Communication channels A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. • Time The innovation-decision period is the length of time required to pass through the innovation-decision process. Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system. • Social system A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal.

26. Types of innovation-decisions • Two factors determine what type a particular decision is: • Whether the decision is made freely and implemented voluntarily and • Who makes the decision. Three types: • Optional Innovation-Decision: This decision is made by an individual who is in some way distinguished from others in a social system. • Collective Innovation-Decision: This decision is made collectively by all individuals of a social system. • Authority Innovation-Decision: This decision is made for the entire social system by few individuals in positions of influence or power.

27. Five stages of the adoption process • Knowledge: In this stage the individual is first exposed to an innovation but lacks information about the innovation. • Persuasion: In this stage the individual is interested in the innovation and actively seeks information/detail about the innovation. • Decision: In this stage the individual takes the concept of the innovation and weighs the advantages/disadvantages of using the innovation and decides whether to adopt or reject the innovation. • Implementation: In this stage the individual employs the innovation to a varying degree depending on the situation. During this stage the individual determines the usefulness of the innovation and may search for further information about it. • Confirmation: In this stage the individual finalizes their decision to continue using the innovation and may use the innovation to its fullest potential.

28. Characteristics of innovations • The relative advantageis how improved an innovation is over the previous generation • the level of compatibility that an innovation has to be assimilated into an individual’s life. • The complexity of an innovation is a significant factor in whether it is adopted by an individual. • Trial ability determines how easily an innovation may be experimented with as it is being adopted. • Observability, is the extent that an innovation is visible to others

29. Opinion leaders within a social system • Not all individuals exert an equal amount of influence over all individuals • There are Opinion Leaders, leaders who are influential in spreading either positive or negative information about an innovation • Opinion leaders have a set of characteristics that set them apart from their followers and other individuals. • Opinion Leaders typically have greater exposure to the mass media, more cosmopolitan, greater contact with change agents, more social experience and exposure, higher socioeconomic status, and are more innovative ormation about an innovation

30. Diffusion in organizations • Collective and Authority innovation-decision processes only occur within an organization or hierarchical group. • The innovation process within an organization contains five stages: • Agenda-setting, • Matching, • Redefining/restructuring, • Clarifying, • Routinizing.