DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

2. Key controversies in Developmental: Nature vs. Nurture: are we the result of our genes or the environment? - Critical periods and maturation Continuity vs. Stage: Do we develop gradually or in rapid bursts? Stability vs. Change: Does your personality stay the same or change with time?

3. Areas of interest: • Cognitive growth: how do our thoughts change as we age? • Physical growth: how do the physical changes we go through at different stages of life effect us psychologically? • Emotional growth: what are some of the shifts in our emotions that occur as we age? • Social growth: who are the different social groups that we interact with at different stages in life? How is our growth influenced by others?

4. Research designs Longitudinal: follows the same group of people over many years - Snowdon’s Minnesota Nun Study:1986 & Alzheimers disease - Terman’s termites:1927 – Gifted children Cross-sectional: studies people of all different ages at one point in time - cohort effects are confounds 3. Cross-sequential: both

5. New Born Brain Brain has fewer- dendrites + synapses During first 3 years Brain Density increases Stimulation causes brain growth Deprivation = lack of stimulation

6. Deprivation vs. Enrichment • Enrichment • Complex Environment • Intellectually Stimulating • *Extra Enhanced Stimulation- increases brain size • So enriched complex, stimulating environment is good. • Parents open kids to experiences- colors, music, people, things to see, taste, smell, touch • Deprivation • Lack of stimulation • IQ down • Emotional Scaring • Poverty can impact development- • Lower IQ- Fearful, unhappy • Prone to hostile- aggressive behavior

7. Key Questions What does an “Enriched Environment” look like with respect to physical environment and personal interaction?

8. Cognitive Development Theory  Piaget’s theory (1960s) Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world, & their cognitive development takes place in stages. Argued that children adapt to their surroundings. Children don’t come out with blank slate, but with methods for acquiring knowledge.

9. Cognitive Development • Children’s thinking is concrete (less abstract) • Need examples- objects to see or touch Piaget believed learning occurs through • Assimilation: • Kids use existing knowledge to new situations • Accommodation: • Ideas + knowledge are modified to fit new requirements • “New ideas are created to accommodate new experiences.”

10. Chapter 11 - Developmental "To present an adequate notion of learning one must first explain how the individual manages to construct and invent, not merely how he repeats and copies."

11. Chapter 11 - Developmental Schema: a mindset or way of thinking about something [cognitive structures] Examples: what is your schema of NCS? Canadians? A Car? Your teacher? Schemas influence how we think about the world around us Many schemas are activated and used automatically – or without any conscious thought. [example: stereotypes]

12. Schemas: Exercise Read the following paragraphs and fill in the missing words: The problems that confront p___ in raising ch___ from in___ to adult life are not easy to ___. Both fa___ and m___ meet with many di___ in their concern for the pro___ from the e__ stage to later life. It is important that young ch___ should have plenty of s___ and good f___ for healthy growth. B___ and g___ should not occupy the same b___ or sleep in the same r___. They are often afraid of the d____.

13. Schema exercise: Anyone get this? The problems that confront poultrymen in raising chickens from incubation to adult life are not easy to summarize. Both farmers and merchants meet with many difficulties in their concern for promotion from the egg stage to later life. It is important that young chicks should have plenty of sunshine and good feed for healthy growth. Banties and geese should not occupy the same barnyard or sleep in the same roost. They are often afraid of the dark.

14. PIAGET and Stage theorist: believed cognitive growth occurs in 4 distinct stages Every stage except for the last one is an inadequate approximation of reality. Development from one stage to the next is caused by the accumulation of errors in the child's understanding of the environment this accumulation eventually causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures or schemas require reorganizing or changing

15. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)- infants acquire knowledge by “acting” on their environment, using their senses and movements to explore the world. Preoperational (2-7 yrs)- preschool-age children acquire advanced language skills and start to think using symbols. Concrete operational (7-11 yrs)- Children’s reasoning becomes logical. They learn to logically organize concepts. They learn conservation of liquids and solids. Formal operational (11+ yrs)-Abstract thinking comes on-line, problem solving ability improves.

16. Piaget Stages: • Age 0-2 Sensorimotor Stage • Non-verbal intellect • Learning Coordination • Use Senses • Develop Object permanence • Objects continue to exist when out of sight

17. Age 2-7 Pre-Operational Stage Before 6-7 children think concretely Age 7 more logical thinking Begin to think symbolically Still intuitive, beginning logic Language developing Egocentric= unable to see the viewpoint of others – self concerned Selfish

18. Age 7-11 Concrete Operational Stage Age 7-11 Concrete Operational Stage Concept of conservation developed Idea that objects have mass and volume constancy Proportions Children begin to use time, space and number Logical Thinking Concrete objects Categories Principles

19. Age 11 and up Formal Operational: Abstract • Abstract Principles develop • Less egocentric • Adolescent • Can consider Hypothetical Possibilities • Adult abilities • Inductive Reasoning • Deductive Reasoning • Formal thinking needs and enhanced by (not just maturity) • Environment • Knowledge • Experience • Wisdom

20. Cons of Piaget’s theory 1. Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers. (E.g., when young children are given tasks scaled down in difficulty, their understanding appears closer to that of older children and the adult) 2.Children’s performance on Piagetian tasks can be improved with training. Suggests there is a problem with the assumption that discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best way to foster development.

21. Vygotsky and Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognition • Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with expert others (more skilled) • Children are guided by experts = Tutors= parents=teachers • Zone of Proximal (close) Development (Learning) • Children can achieve more complex/higher levels with support working with expert others or skilled partners • Scaffolding= • Temporary Support to help kids learn • Must be responsive to children’s needs • Mental bridges

22. Key Questions Which is more important: Exploration or Experts? What factors may inhibit moving from one stage to the next? How can we encourage or accelerate the transition from one stage to the next?

23. Approximate age StageDescription of Task Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants (1st year) develop a sense of basic trust. Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks (3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying (6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feelinferior. puberty) Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

24. Approximate age Stage Description of Task Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by (teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri- (40’s to 60’s) stagnation butingto the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older (late 60’s and failure. adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) despair Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

25. Gernerativity In Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development, generativity is a struggle against stagnation that ascends during adulthood. Generativity in the psychosocial sense refers to the concern for establishing and guiding the next generation and is said to stem from a sense of optimism about humanity.

26. Erikson Stages of Success Favorable outcomes at each stage are sometimes known as "virtues" The virtues in the order of the stages in which they may be acquired are: hope will purpose confidence fidelity love care wisdom

27. Evaluating Stages Theory • Gender differences – more focus on men • Cultural differences and historical change • Few cultural comparison studies done • Inconsistent evidence • Questions about idea of stage theories • Mid-course correction, not mid-life crises • Predicted changes do not occur at ages indicated

28. Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development • Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality • Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. • • Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished they must have done wrong. • • Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

29. Level 2 - Conventional morality • Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. • • Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers are related to the approval of others. • • Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

30. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality • Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. • • Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.  The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing. • • Stage 6: Universal Principles.  People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law.  The principles apply to everyone.  E.g. human rights, justice and equality.  The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

31. Critical Evaluation Criticism of Kohlberg’s theory comes from Gilligan, who argues that the theory is androcentric (male bias) after Kohlberg reporting that most men were at stage 4 while most women were at stage 3.  Gilligan (1982) claims that the female participants of Kohlberg’s study were being judged using a male standard due to the gender bias of Kohlberg’s original research, which was based solely on studying men.  Gilligan reached the conclusion that Kohlberg’s theory did not account for the fact that women approach moral problems from an ‘ethics of care’, rather than an ‘ethics of justice’ perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlberg’s theory. The fact that Kohlberg’s theory is heavily dependent on an individual’s response to an artificial dilemma brings question to the validity of the results obtained through this research.  People may respond very differently to real life situations that they find themselves in than they do to an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment.  Further, the gender bias issue raised by Gilligan is a reminded of the significant gender debate still present in psychology, which when ignored, can have a large impact on results obtained through psychological research. The way in which Kohlberg carried out his research when constructing this theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same sequence of stage progression. His research was cross-sectional, meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to see what level of moral development they were at.  A better way to see if all children follow the same order through the stages would have been to carry out longitudinal research on the same children. However, longitudinal research on Kohlberg’s theory has since been carried out by Colby et al. (1983) who tested 58 male participants of Kohlberg’s original study. She tested them 6 times in the span of 27 years and found support for Kohlberg’s original conclusion, that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.

32. Parenting Styles? How were you raised? If you had to describe your parents’ parenting style what would it be? Give 5 adjectives that describe it. What would you have changed? How do you hope to raise your children?

33. Overly Permissive: Little guidance Too much freedom Low accountability Rights but few responsibilities Rules not enforced Spoiled kids = poorly behaved child

34. Authoritarian: Expectation to stay out of trouble Rigid rules Strict obedience Put responsibilities on kids Kids have few rights Children- usually obedient, self controlled Must accept parent view of right and wrong Emotionally stiff Withdrawn Higher rates of drug abuse

35. Authoritative • Children are competent Independent Self controlled Assertive Firm consistent guidance With love & affection Not harsh Not rigid Encourage child: To act responsibility To think To make good decisions

36. Summary

37. Developmental Child Qualities & Parenting Styles Authoritative Parenting lively and happy disposition self-confident about ability to master tasks. well developed emotion regulation developed social skills less rigid about gender-typed traits

38. Developmental Child Qualities & Parenting Styles Permissive Parenting poor emotion regulation (under regulated) rebellious and defiant when desires are challenged. low persistence to challenging tasks antisocial behaviors

39. Developmental Child Qualities & Parenting Styles Authoritarian Parenting anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition Low self-esteem and prone to depression poor reactions to frustration (girls likely to give up and boys become hostile) do well in school (studies may show authoritative parenting is comparable) not likely to engage in antisocial activities (exp: drug and alcohol abuse, vandalism, gangs)

40. Kübler-Ross – five stages • Denial • Anger • Bargaining • Depression • Acceptance

41. Pre-operational stage. [2-7 yrs. old] • Animistic thinking: inanimate object are alive. • Disney’s: “Toy Story” & “Cars” • Imagination and imaginary play explode. Some children have imaginary friends. Today, imaginary friends are seen as a sign of psychological health. • Egocentric thought: self-focused. Lacking in perspective taking. Difficulty seeing the world through anothers eyes. Turn-taking and sharing are problematic during this age due to egocentric thinking

42. Pre-operational stage 2-7yrs. • Intuitivethinkers: do not think things through logically. • Children during this stage are lacking in conservation: a landmark skill in which a child is able to understand that mass is a constant • Symbolic thought: children learn that letters, words, and pictures are symbols for actual objects in the real world • Centration: can only focus on one attribute of an object at a time [typically, the most prominent feature] • http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9014865592046332725&q=Piaget&hl=en [Piaget video]

43. Developmental

44. Developmental Object permanence is achieved during the pre-operational stage Conservation is lacking or not present during the pre-operational stage

45. Developmental Concrete operational stage. Ages 7-11yrs. - logical thinking - conservation is present - lacking abstract thought – everything is taken quite literally. Example: When Mom says to her 7 yr old son “Give your sister a lick” because he is eating an ice cream cone, what does he do?  - lacking hypothetical or “what if” thinking

46. Developmental 4. Formal operational stage. Ages 11+ • Abstract thinking is present: child is able to understand difficult abstract concepts such as love and prejudice • Hypothetical or “what if” thinking is present for the first time. Children can think strategically- [planning ahead]. • Games to play?? Chess is great for developing this skill.

47. Developmental Formal operational stage - imaginary audience and the spotlight effect - unrealistic optimism and the personal fable