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1.0 Prophets. 1. What is a
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1. 1. Introduction to the Prophets & Prophetic Literature
2. 1.0 Prophets 1. What is a prophet / prophetess?
"M. Weippert has described "prophet" in the following manner: " a prophet(ess) is a person, male or female, who (1) through a cognitive experience, a vision, an audition, a dream or the like, becomes the subject of the revelation of a deity, or several deities, and (2) is conscious of being commissioned by the deity / deities in question to convey the revelation in speech, or through metalinguistic behavior, to a third party who constitutes the actual recipient of the message." [Barstad, Hans M. "No Prophets? Recent Developments in Biblical Prophetic Research and Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy," JSOT 57 (1993), 46]
3. 1.0 Prophets 2. Terms:
2.1 aybn na4b|,) "one who is called" "one who speaks"
"If the original meaning of na4b|=) involved not "being named" but "naming," then perhaps the biblical tradition of "calling on the name" preserves an ancient identity of the Israelite prophet as "one who invokes" the name of Yahweh for power and guidance." [Flemming, "The Etymological Origin of the Hebrew na4b|=)]
Again, the argument concerning the Hitpa(el form hitnabbe4), which has been raised by scholars as evidence of prophetic madness, is untenable. The philological investigation into this form reveals that its semantic field covers all shades of meaning from "to behave enthusiastically" to "to be mad" (1 Sam 18.10) - the exact meaning in each case being determined by the context." [Uffenheimer, "Prophecy, Ecstasy, Sympathy," 263]
4. 1.0 Prophets 2.2 har ro4)eh
"The Ephraimite literature applies the title "seer" (ro'eh) only to Samuel, and even in this case the use of the title is confined to the old story of Saul's search for the lost asses (1 Sam 9.11, 18, 19).... The function of the seer is explicitly state in an explanatory gloss in 1 Sam 9.9, in which later Ephraimite authors interpreted the meaning of the archaic title. The gloss explains that "previously in Israel, thus people said when going to inquire of God, "come, let us go to the seer", for the one who is now called prophet (nab') was previously called a seer (ro'eh)." [Wilson, R.R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 139]
5. 1.0 Prophets "(a) The role of the ro'eh is enacted in an urban setting.... (b) The role is enacted at the high place in the city. This fact tells us that the role was not enacted privately, either at a private shrine or in someone's home. The role was enacted publicly.... (d) The activity of the ro'eh required payment.... *e) Enactment of the ro'eh's role entailed participation in a sacrificial cultus. Such a cultus involved animal slaughter and the communal consumption of food, the latter element no doubt yet another form of payment for the ro'eh service.... (f) The ro'eh was in the business of responding to requests for information. Such activity is consistent with payment of a fee to the ro'eh.... (g) The role, or more precisely role label, fell in to desuetude at some point in Israel's history. 1 Samuel 9.9 gives unequivocal evidence of this fact. When the term ro'eh lost currency, we do not know." [Peterson, The Roles of Israel's Prophets, 38-39]
6. 1.0 Prophets 2.3. ~yhla[h] vya "man of God"
"The title "man of God" occurs about sixty-six times in the Ephriamite corpus and is widely attested in extrabiblical literature. The phrase "man of God" should probably be understood to mean "servant of God," and there is some indication that the designation was an honorific title applied to certain members of prophetic groups." [Wilson, R.R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 140]
7. 1.0 Prophets 2.4 ~yaybnh ynb "sons of the prophets"
"The use of the title "sons of the prophets" is restricted to Ephraimite narratives describing prophetic activity in Israel during the reigns of Ahab, Ahaziah, and Joram (1 Kgs 20.35; 2 Kgs 2.3,5,7,15; 4.1,38; 5.22; 6.1; 9.1). The title thus seems to have been employed for a relatively brief period of time (ca. 869-842 B.C.) and is particularly identified with the activities of Elisha. The expression "son of ..." or "sons of ..." is frequently used in Semitic to indicated membership in a group or guild, so there is little doubt that "sons of the prophets" was a designation applied ot members of some sort of prophetic group." [Wilson, R.R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 140-141]
8. 1.0 Prophets 2.5 hzx h9o4zeh
"The title "visionary is a participle of the verb hazah, "to see" or "to have a vision." The majority of the occurrences of the verb and its nominal derivatives are in visionary contexts, so we may safely assume that the hzx was one who obtained revelations through visions. The title is employed primarily by Judean authors and is almost always given to individuals who can be identified as Judeans." [Wilson, R.R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 254-255]
10. 1.0 Prophets 3. Ancient Near Eastern Context of Prophecy
3.1 Prophecy in Egypt
In Egypt prophecy appears to have played a role within the established social order and was probably connected with the priesthood. The Egyptian prophecies which have been preserved seem to have functioned both to authorize the governmental and religious structure at the time they were issued and to advance the political and religious views of particular priestly groups. The behavioral characteristics of Egyptian prophets are unclear but probably did not include features which modern observers would call ecstatic." [Wilson, "Early Israelite Prophecy," 7]
11. 1.0 Prophets 3.2 Prophecy in Syria and Palestine:
"Canaanite prophecy is mentioned in the Wen-Amun Report from Egypt (eleventh century B.C.) and in a stela of Zakir, king of Hamath and Lu(ash (eighth century B.C.). At least in the first case the stereotypical behavior of the prophet can be called ecstatic, a description that fits the biblical picture of Canaanite prophet can be called ecstatic, a description that fits the biblical picture of Canaanite prophecy (1 Kings 18.19-40). Some of the Canaanite prophets seem to have been part of the religious establishment, although it is not certain that all of them were." [Wilson, "Early Israelite Prophecy," 7]
12. 1.0 Prophets 3.3 Prophecy in Ammon (Tell Deir )Alla):
"The text indicates that he received his revelations at night, apparently without actively seeking them. The fact that he is given a title suggests that he may have played a central role in his society, and this suggestion is reinforced by the very fact that his oracles were preserved both at Deir `Alla and in the Bible. Furthermore, the Deir `Alla inscription was written on a stele which was originally located in what may have been a cult place or a shrine. This hints at a religious function for the oracle and for Balaam himself. Because the gods that spoke to Balaam seem to have been the chief gods of Deir `Alla, the seer may have played a role in the central social structure and may have had social maintenance functions. However, these deductions must remain tentative, both because of the fragmentary state of the inscription and because of the role that tradition may have played in shaping the picture of Balaam preserved in the text." [Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel, 133]
13. 1.0 Prophets 3.4 Prophecy in Mesopotamia:
"In contrast to Egypt, prophets played almost no role in the heartland of Mesopotamia, where divine-human communication took place mainly through omens and dreams. Thus diviners and interpreters of omens had important roles in Mesopotamian society, but prophets did not. Their existence is attested only on the periphery of Mesopotamia, where West-Semitic influence may be present. Thus, tablets from the Mari archives (eighteenth century B.C.) speak of several types of prophetic figures and record some of their words. Some of these figures, such as "the ecstatic" (muhhu4), "the answerer" (a4pilu), and the assinnu, have
14. 1.0 Prophets titles, a fact which may indicate that they had established roles within the religious establishment. Other figures have no titles and were apparently lay persons. The oracles of these prophets concern religious and political matters and are usually directed to the king. Although some of the prophets may have functioned officially within the cult, their general peripheral status is indicated by the fact that the accuracy of their messages is sometimes tested by divination. Several of these prophets, particularly "the ecstatic" and the assinnu, seem to have exhibited stereo-typical behavior, but it is impossible to reconstruct this in any detail. Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (ca. 681-630 B.C.), when West-Semitic influences apparently reached the Assyrian royal court." [Wilson, "Early Israelite Prophecy," 7-8]
15. 1.1 History of Prophecy in Israel 1. Pre-Classical Prophecy:
Pentateuch:
Gen. 20.7
Num 11.16-17, 24-30; 12; 15.20 (Judg 4.4)
Deut 18.15-22; 34.10
Former Prophets:
Judges 4-5 (Judg 4.4)
Judges 6.7-10
The Samuel Traditions (1 Sam 1-16)
16. 1.1 History of Prophecy in Israel Nathan and Gad, the beginning of the Judean prophetic tradition
Nathan:
Dynastic promise to David: 2 Sam 7; 1 Chron 17
Confronting David after his sin involving Bathsheba and Uriah: 2 Sam 12
Solomons succesion to David's throne: 1 Kgs 1
Wrote the "Chronicle of Nathan the Prophet" 1 Chron 29.29 and 2 Chron 9.29.
17. 1.1 History of Prophecy in Israel Gad
Counsels David when fleeing from Saul at the cave of Adulaam: 1 Sam 22
Gave David three choices after his census sin: 2 Sam 24; 1 Chron 21.1-27
Wrote a cultic rule used by King Hezekiah and his Levitical musicians: 2 Chron 29.25, 29-30.
Early Periods of the Divided Monarchy:
Ahijah of Shiloh = 1 Kgs 11.29-39; 14.1-18
Shemaiah (a Judahite) = 1 Kgs 12.21-24; 2 Chron 11.2-4; 12.1-12, 15
18. 1.1 History of Prophecy in Israel The Man of God from Judah = 1 Kgs 13.1-32
Jehu the son of Hanani = 1 Kgs 16.1-4
Elijah = 1 Kgs 17-19, 21; 2 Kgs 1-2
Elisha = 2 Kgs 2-10
Maciaiah son of Imlah = 1 Kgs 22
19. 1.1 History of Prophecy in Israel 2. Classical Prophecy: From Hos/Amos-Ezek
3. Post-Exilic Prophecy: Hag, Zech, Mal
20. 1.2 The Role of the Prophets 1. The Prophetic Call or Commission
"From the biblical perspective there is no comprehending the prophets apart form their encounter with God." [Childs, B., Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context, 124]
"Zimmerli showed that there were two basic types of the genre. One type was structured in terms as the report of a vision in the divine court, similar to other vision reports (Isa 6.1-13; Ezk 1-3; 1 Kgs 22.19-23), while the other emphasized the coming of the word of God - an audition - to the prophet or other divine representative (Jer
21. 1.2 The Role of the Prophets 1.4-10; Ex 3-4; Judg 6.11-14). . . Their purpose is...the authentication of the prophet's authority and message. " [Tucker, "Prophecy and Prophetic Literature," The Hebrew Bible and Its Modern Interpreters, eds. Knight and Tucker, 341]
22. 1.2 The Role of the Prophets 2. The Messenger of God
"The role of the messenger was to communicate the exact letter of the message in the form of direct address (Gen 32.4). Thus, in an analogous fashion the prophet functioned only as a vehicle of a message which he delivered unchanged from its source. In sum, in spite of the fact that there was actually an important filtering of the divine revelation through the different prophetic personalities - compare Hosea with Amos - this psychological dimension was never assigned an autonomous significance by the biblical tradition." [Childs, 125]
23. 1.2 The Role of the Prophets 3. Prophet as Intercessor
"Amos is pictured in ch 7 attempting to intercede for Israel's sake before each divine decision of Judgment (vv 2ff). Again, Jer is described as defending the people until he is commanded by God not to pray for its welfare (Jer 15.1f). Similarly, Ezek is made dumb in order to bring to a halt any intercession on his part for the rejected people (Ezek 3.25ff)." [Childs, 127]
24. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism I. General Formulaic Features
A. The Messenger Formula
1. Isa 7.7: hwIhy> yn"doa] rm;a' hKo thus says the Lord GOD
2. Isa 8.11: hw"hy> rm;a' hKo thus says the LORD
25. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism B. Commission Formula
1. Isa 6.9: hZ<h; ~['l' T'r>m;a'w> %le Go and say to this people
2. General pattern: Say to X, thus says Yahweh; Go and say to X, thus says Yahweh; (Go and) say to X [messenger formula absent]
3. N.B. Gen 32.3-4; Jer 2.1-2.
26. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism C. Proclamation Formula
1. Isa 1.10: hw"hy>-rb;d> W[m.vi Hear the word of the LORD
2. Used especially in Isaiahs Wisdom Instructions (Isa 28.23) and Torah Instructions (Isa 49.1; 51.4)
27. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism D. Divine Oracle Formula
1. Isa 14.23 hw"hy>-~aun> says the LORD
2. Isa 3.5 tAab'c. hwIhy> yn"doa]-~aun> says the Lord GOD of Hosts
28. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism E. Oath Formulas
1. 3rd person: Isa 14.24; 62.8 hw"hy> [B;v.nI the LORD has sworn
2. 1st person: Isa 45.23; 54.9 yTi[.B;v.nI I have sworn
F. Revelation Formula
Isa 8.3 yl;ae hw"hy> rm,aYOw: then the LORD said to me
29. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism II. Basic Structural Elements
A. Five Basic Elements:
1. Prediction of the Future as a negative prediction or a threat
2. Prediction of the Future as a positive prediction or a promise
3. Subordinate structural elements:
3.1 Accusation
3.2 Admonition
3.3 Statement of Divine self-disclosure
30. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism B. Use of Supporting Reason/s:
1. yki when prediction precedes the reason
2. !kel' when the reason precedes the prediction
31. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism III. Forms of Prophetic Speech
A. Announcement of Judgment
1. Isa 3.21; 8.6-8; 30.12-14 (N.B. that the so-called Oracles Against the Nations in Isa 13-23 take this form)
2. Pattern:
2.1 Messenger Formula
2.2 Threat (a predictive statement)
2.3 Accusation (a reason for the threat)
32. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism B. Announcement of Salvation
1. Isa 7.7-9
2. Pattern
2.1 Messenger Formula
2.2 Explanation of Situation
2.3 Promise
2.4 Reason
33. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism C. Salvation-Judgment Oracle
1. Isa 56.12-57.13bc; 65.7-8, 10-11, 13-15
2. Pattern
2.1 Accusation and threat
2.2 Promise
2.3 Accusation and threat
2.4 Oracles of Salvation and Judgment
2.5 Final promise of Salvation
34. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism D. Oracle of Salvation (Oracle of Assurance)
1. Isa 41.8-13, 14-16; 43.1-7; 44.1-5
2. Pattern
2.1 Fear Not! (or equivalent)
2.2 Designation of the addressee
2.3 Basic reason of the admonition expressed by a clause with the verb in the perfect tense.
35. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism E. Admonition
1. Isa 1.10-17
2. Pattern
2.1 Messenger Formula
2.2 Admonition (frequently uses imperative or jussives which call for repentance and improvement)
2.3 Reason
36. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism F. Oracle of Divine Self-Disclosure
1. Isa 41.17-20; 49.22-26
2. Pattern
2.1 Reason
2.2 Promise
2.3 Recognition Formula
37. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism G. Woe-Oracle
1. Isa 5.8-24; 28.1-33.1
2. Pattern
2.1 ho=y (yAh) Accusation
2.2 Threat
38. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism H. Judicial Speech
1. Isa 1; 41.1-5, 21-29; 42.18-25; 43.8-15, 22-28; 44.6-8; 50.1-3
2. Pattern
2.1 Summons
2.2 The Trial (with speeches by the prosecution and defense)
2.3 The Sentence
39. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism IV. Prophetic Narratives
A. Vision Narrative
1. Isa 6
2. Pattern
2.1 Announcement of the Vision
2.2 Transition with (hnh)
2.3 Vision Sequence or report of Vision
2.4 Meaning of Vision
40. 1.3 Prophecy & Form Criticism B. Symbolic Action
1. Isa 8.1-4
2. Pattern
2.1 A command of Yahweh to the prophet concerning the exact nature of the symbolic action to be preformed
2.2 A report of the fulfillment of the command by the prophet
2.3 A full interpretation of the prophetic action, frequently accompanied by a divine promise
41. C. Call Narrative
42. 1.4 Prophecy as Poetry 1. General Introduction
1.1 Rhyme, rhythm unlike classic European and later Jewish poetry.
1.2 The use of parallelism
1.3 Freedmans identification of the prosaic elements: i.e., the direct object marker (ta); the relative pronoun (rva); and the definite article (-h).
1.4 The problem with metre
43. 1.4 Prophecy as Poetry 1.5 Wifred G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques: Prose or poetry table of indicators:
Broad Indicators: i) presence of established line-forms, ii) ellipsis, especially verb-gapping, iii) unusual vocabulary, iv) conciseness, v) unusual word-order, vi) archaisms, vii) use of metre and rhythm, viii) regularity and symmetry
Structural Indicators: i)parallelism in various forms, ii)word-pairs, iii) chiastic patterns, iv) envelope figure, v) break-up of stereotyped phrases, vi) repetition in various forms, vii) repetition in various forms, viii) gender-matched parallelism, ix) tricolon
Other. a) rhyme, b) other sound patterns
Negative. Absence/rarity of prose elements
44. 1.4 Prophecy as Poetry 2. Parallelism of Members
2.1 Definitions:
N.K. Gottwald: The habit of the Hebrew poet of balancing thought against thought, phrase against phrase, word against word, is the persisting feature of his method of working.
A. Berlin: ...parallelism is a matter of relationships - between lines and/or parts of lines.
Richard Lowths classic definition: The correspondence of one Verse, or Line, with another I call Parallelism. When a proposition is delivered, and a second is subjoined to it, or drawn under it, equivalent or contrasted with it, in
45. 1.4 Prophecy as Poetry Sense; or similar to it in the form of Grammatical Construction; these I call Parallel Lines; and the words or phrases answering one to another in the corresponding Lines Parallel Terms.
Kugel argues for A, whats more, B while Alter postulates the consequentiality of parallel lines.
2.2 The three basic types: Synonymous, Antithetic and Synthetic
Synonymous: Ps 112.1
Antithetic: Prov 10.1
Synthetic or Formal: Qoh 11.2
46. 1.4 Prophecy as Poetry Other Miscellaneous Types:
Emblematic Parallelism (simile and metaphor): Ps 42.2
Staircase Parallelism: Judg 5.12
Chiastic Parallelism: Jer 4.5a
Janus Parallelism: Gen 49.26
2.3 Kugel's understanding of Parallelism or Seconding
47. 1.4 Prophecy as Poetry 3. Techniques:
3.1 Alliteration
3.2 Assonance
3.3 Paranomasia
3.4 Onomatopoeia
3.5 Word Pairs
