The Use of Rewards in Education

1. The Use of Rewards in Education What Would You Do for a ? By Amy Taylor, Beth Koziol, & Kristin Hoffmann

2. Navigation Keys • Home (Introduction page) • Table of Contents • Graphic Organizer • Internet Sources

3. Table of Contents • Graphic Organizer: Competing Theories • Behaviorism • Skinner • Reaction to Rewards • Lepper • Deci and Ryan • Cameron and Pierce • Alfie Kohn • Glossary • References

4. How much do you know about use of rewards in schools? True or False: • General praise is the best way to increase intrinsic motivation. TrueFalse • Research has shown that elaborate rewards motivates students the best. TrueFalse • Rewards should be contingent upon achievement. TrueFalse 4. Intermittent reinforcement is not effective. TrueFalse 5. Teachers should not give rewards for something a student already likes to do. TrueFalse If you answered all questions correctly, click here If you missed a question, click here

5. The Rewards Controversy Since the 1960s, motivating students through the use of rewards has been standard practice. But cognitive psychologists studying the interaction between rewards and motivation see the use of rewards in education as a more insidious practice. Despite 30 years of research arguing for caution when using rewards to motivate students, the educational system still subscribes to the behaviorist model of positive reinforcement. Do you think motivating students with rewards is a good thing? View the rest of the slides and make up your own mind.

6. Competing Theories in Rewards Research

7. Behaviorism Using Positive Reinforcement to Shape Behavior

8. Theory of Behaviorism and Education • Behaviorism developed from research on learning • Learners are subject to conditioning by their environment (There are two types of conditioning.) • Early behaviorists were: Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner “ There is no place in the scientific analysis of behavior for a mind or self.” (Skinner, 1990).

9. B.F. Skinner • Using rats and pigeons, Skinner experimented with behavior reinforcements and coined the term operant conditioning, shaping, and extinction. • Skinner’s Box Click here: • Reward or not to reward? (according to Skinner…) • According to Skinner, all human behavior can be explained by the principle of “reinforcement.” Behaviors that are followed by rewards (that is, reinforced) are likely to be repeated. (Robinson, 1998)

10. Skinner’s Box • Began as a maze for rodents to obtain food and the process of waiting to observe behavior was tedious so… • Skinner built box with horizontal lever which rodent could press to obtain food pellet. How rat obtains food it is not reinforced again until the behavior is emitted. • This pattern occurs over and over again in small steps until the rat does what Skinner wants him to do (shaping). • Extinction occurs when the learned response is eliminated. • Schedules of reinforcement plays an important role in the manner in which behavior is reinforced. • Application to the classroom • More on Skinner: http://www.bfskinner.org/Home.html

11. Reward or not to Reward?According to Skinner… • Believed that rewards cause behaviors to be repeated. Students and Homework • Rewards (positive reinforcers) is more effective in teaching new and better behaviors. Students and Misbehaving   “The consequences of an act affect the probability of it's occurring again.” BF Skinner

12. Examples in Classrooms: • Jimmy refuses to do his homework. Ms. Taylor is not sure what to do so she asks Counselor Skinner for advice. He suggests giving Jimmy a candy bar each time he completes homework. • Suzy misbehaves everyday. Mr. Lodge is frustrated and seeks advice from Principal Skinner. Mr. Skinner says the best remedy is to intermittently give Suzy extra recess time for when she does behave.

13. Schedules of Reinforcement Which type of reinforcement do you think is more effective? Why? (Lefrancois,1983)

14. Types of Reinforcement • Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective. • Four types of reinforcement: • Tangible: a candy bar, stickers • Activity: more playtime • Graphic: Charting amount of desired behaviors • Social: Gestures and verbal expressions • “The way positive reinforcement is carried out is more important than the amount.” BF Skinner

15. Reaction to the Behaviorists Could Positive Reinforcement Via Rewards Be Doing More Harm Than Good?

16. Studies of: Mark Lepper Edward Deci Mark Ryan Judy Cameron W. David Pierce Alfie Kohn

17. Mark Lepper’sOverjustification Hypothesis: Sometimes Rewarding a Behavior Makes it Less Likely to Happen • In a 1973 study, M.R. Lepper, D. Greene and R.E. Nisbett discovered that preschoolers who already enjoyed to draw would spend less time drawing and would draw lower quality pictures when a reward for drawing was offered to them. • Lepper (1981) called this overjustification. The reward gave more than adequate justification for the preschoolers participation. The student’s own justification for drawing (because they like to draw) was lost.

18. An old man was bothered by kids playing ball and yelling every day in an empty lot next to his house. He knew he couldn’t just chase them away. So,he offered each one of them 25 cents to play and yell real loud. They always played there anyway and the addition of money was great, so they did. He did the same thing the next day and the day after that, urging them to make a lot of noise. The kids were delighted. On the fourth day, however, the old man told them he was sorry but he could only pay them 15 cents. They grumbled but did it anyhow. The fifth day, he told them he could only pay 5 cents. The kids left and never came back! http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/chap4q.htm

19. Now do you see why the kids quit playing ball when the old man began paying them? • The act of paying the kids overjustified the reason they were playing ball in the empty lot in the first place. The kids forgot that their original justification was that they enjoyed playing ball and making noise. • They began to think that they played ball and made noise for the money, so when the extrinsic reward (the money) got too small they could not justify their play anymore.

20. I. Potential to Inform Can Increase Intrinsic Motivation Reward is given contingent upon quality of a student’s work. Reward imbues student with a “feeling of competence” that he/she was responsible for the quality of the work. “Feelings of competence” must be attributed to self. Intrinsic motivation will increase only in areas that already hold “intrinsic interest” for the student! Edward Deci and Mark Ryan’sCognitive Evaluation Theory:All Rewards Have Two Potential Purposes Deci & Ryan, 1985

21. II. Potential to Control Can Decrease Intrinsic Motivation A tangible reward is given for merely completing a task. Student may believe the teacher is trying to control their behavior with the reward. Student may believe that their primary motivation for doing the task is the reward. When reward is removed, intrinsic motivation diminishes, especially for tasks the student wasn’t intrinsically motivated to do in the first place. When autonomy is taken away, motivation decreases. Edward Deci and Mark Ryan’sCognitive Evaluation Theory:All Rewards Have Two Potential Purposes Deci & Ryan 2000

22. According to Cognitive Evaluation Theorywhat is the purpose of the reward in this scenario? • Michael isn’t a great student but he does okay. One wouldn’t describe him as outgoing, but he’s certainly not shy. He’s not a star athlete either. Michael is the type of student who often goes unnoticed by most teachers, but not by Erin Green, his English teacher. Ms. Green saw Michael stick up for a girl in his class who was being teased by some of the more “popular” girls. That night, Ms. Green called Michael’s parents to tell them how proud she was of Michael’s actions at school that day. This is not uncommon for Ms. Green. She makes a point of calling parents at least three times per week to tell them something positive about their child.

23. If you said “to inform” you are correct!You get a ! • Rewards that are contingent upon performance convey information which can increase motivation. • These rewards must give the student a feeling of competence and the student must attribute the success to himself/herself. • Verbal praise, if it is specific, informative and contingent upon performance can strengthen intrinsic interest. • Students already must have intrinsic interest in the activity. (Michael was self-motivated to help the girl in his class.) Deci, Valelrand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991 Deci & Ryan, 1985

24. The Behaviorists Fight Back • Judy Cameron and W. David Pierce (1994) published a controversial meta-analysis. • They reviewed 96 studies and determined that “intrinsic motivation is not dampened by rewards.” • They said the only negative rewards were those given to individuals “simply for doing a task.” (Cameron & Pierce, 1994)

25. All Rewards are Evil!!! Alfie Kohn Fights Back!

26. Alfie KohnRewards Should Not Be Given • Pop behaviorismis dehumanizing and demeaning. Society believes that it is right to reward people for what they do. Rewarding children is like training a family pet. • Rewards are given in order to control. “They control through seduction, rather than force. Rewards are typically used to induce or pressure people to do things they would not freely do.” (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

27. Alfie KohnRewards Should Not Be Given • Rewards speak the wrong language. Rewards say, learning issomething done in order to receive a prize. Rewards don’t say, learning is intrinsically valuable. • Rewards do not produce lasting change. The change does not remain once the goodies are gone. (Alan Kazdin’s token economy study, 1972) http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~jimbo/RIBARY_Folder/problems.htm

28. Alfie KohnRewards Should Not Be Given • Giving praise does not improve student achievement, behavior, or self-esteem. • If students receive praise for easy tasks, they may interpret it as meaning they are not smart. • Praising students for their accomplishments may put pressure on them to always perform well. This pressure can cause students to become self-conscious and afraid of failure. • Students who become dependent on their teachers’ praise may avoid more difficult tasks, fearful that they will not meet their teachers’ expectations.

29. Five Reasons Rewards Fail • Rewards punish – If a student does not receive a reward they were hoping to get, it is a form of punishment. Threatening to withhold or withdraw a reward is identical to threatening to use punishment. Example: Mr. Sphere tells his students that those who receive a 100% on their spelling test tomorrow will get an additional 20 minutes of recess. That evening Johnny really studied his words. His mom even gave him a practice test. The next day Johnny took the test, but he misspelled one word. He had to sit in the classroom while the others played outside. If you were Johnny, how would you have felt?

30. Five Reasons Rewards Fail • Rewards disrupt horizontal relationshipsand verticalrelationships- Rewards do not encourage students to work together or to feel a sense of community in the classroom. “Of all the ways by which people are led to seek rewards, I believe the most destructive possible arrangement is to limit the number that are available.” (Kohn, 1993) Example: Ms. Cube announces to the class that the student with the highest math quiz scores during the second semester will receive a “big block” Hershey’s milk chocolate candy bar. If you were a student in Ms. Cube’s class, would you be willing to help your classmates solve math problems? How would you feel towards Ms. Cube, realizing that even if your quiz average is an A, you still might not receive the reward?

31. Five Reasons Rewards Fail • Rewards do not ask “why?” – Rewards do not get to the root of why problems start in the first place. “Some people use rewards because they are impatient for results, however fleeting or superficial: their attention is focused on the bottom line and they don’t particularly care about the ‘deeper issues’.” (Kohn, 1993) Example: Kim does not turn in her daily homework. Her teacher, Ms. Cylinder, tells Kim that she will award her with a sticker every time she returns her assignments. When Kim receives 15 stickers, she will receive a special prize. Days pass and Kim still does not complete her work. Ms. Cylinder gives up on the reward system. Unfortunately, the teacher never asked Kim why completing homework was such a struggle. If Ms. Cylinder had known that Kim had to spend her evenings caring for her sick mother, she could have modified her assignments. The unattained prize makes Kim feel like she is a failure.

32. Five Reasons Rewards Fail • Rewards do not promote risk-taking – “When we are working for a reward, we do exactly what is necessary to get it and no more. Risks are to be avoided whenever possible because the objective is not to engage in open-ended encounter with ideas; it is simply to get the goody.” (Kohn, 1993) Example: Amy’s school is having a reading contest. If all the students read 2,000 books, the principal will reward them with a day of food, games, and other activities on the soccer field. Amy wants to read as many books as she can. Do you think Amy will read easy reader books or long, challenging novels?

33. Five Reasons Rewards Fail • Rewards decrease interest & intrinsic motivation– “Anything presented as a prerequisite for something else – that is, as a means toward some other end – comes to be seen as less desirable. The recipient of the reward figures, ‘If they have to bribe me to do this, it must be something I wouldn’t want to do’.” (Kohn, 1993) http://amadeus.management.mcgill.ca/~mark.mortensen/orgweb/summaries/mse/content/Lepper+et_al.html(Lepper, 1982) Example: Mr. Pyramid told his class that for every book report a student turned in, they would receive a prize from his treasure chest. Kristin completed only one book report. Why do you think she lost motivation?

34. Alfie’s Suggestions For Teachers Who Feel They Must Reward • Offer fewer and smaller rewards. Give them out privately – don’t make a fuss. • Give surprise rewards – don’t tell students in advance. • Rewards should not be turned into a contest. • Make rewards as similar as possible to the task, i.e., give a book as a reward for reading a book • Include students in the decision-making process, i.e., type of reward, criteria, etc. • Rewards should not be used as a way to motivate students.

35. Alfie’s Suggestions For Teachers Who Feel They Must Reward • Instead of praising students, praise what students do. • Be specific with praise – focus on parts of the product, not the product in general. • Praise genuinely – avoid using praise to manipulate or control. • Give praise privately – avoid setting up competition by comparing one to another.

36. Let’s see what you know NOW! • If a student stops doing his homework after the teacher no longer gives candy bars for completion this behavior is called conditioning. TrueFalse 2. BF Skinner was against the use of any kind of reinforcer or reward. TrueFalse 3. BF Skinner and Alfie Kohn are on opposite sides of the controversy of using rewards. TrueFalse 4. Behaviorists believe that learners are subject to conditioning by their environment. TrueFalse

37. How ya doing? 5. The theory of cognitive evaluation states that a reward given for a task the student already enjoys “overjustifies” the reasons for their participation. TrueFalse 6. According to Deci and Ryan, all rewards have two components: potential to control and potential to inform. TrueFalse • Extrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in a task for its own sake with no recognizable reward. TrueFalse • Alfie Kohn feels rewards stifle intrinsic motivation. TrueFalse

38. You’re Almost Finished! • According to Alfie Kohn, rewards help to understand the reason behind the problem. TrueFalse 10. Kohn feels rewards encourage collaboration among students. TrueFalse 11. Kohn states that teachers should not tell students about rewards before they are given. TrueFalse • Studies have shown that rewards encourage students to take chances and think creatively. TrueFalse

39. Teacher Tips • Rewards should never be given for mere participation in a task. • Rewards should always be contingent upon achievement. • Praise should always be specific, informative and contingent upon performance. • Rewards should be meaningful. • Rewards should not be presented on only one occasion (when trying to shape behavior). • Use the smallest reward that will reinforce behavior. • Keep reward systems simple.

40. Glossary Behaviorism - observable aspects of behavior Classical Conditioning- organisms have no control over a situation Cognitive Evaluation Theory - all rewards have the potential to control and the potential to inform Conditioning - association formed between a stimulus and response Extinction- the gradual disappearance of a learned response with the reinforcer is removed.

41. Glossary Extrinsic Motivation - an activity is done to obtain some external reward Horizontal Relationship – an association among peers Intrinsic Motivation - doing an activity for the inherent satisfaction of doing that activity, not because of an external reward that you will receive for doing the activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000) Negative Reinforcement- removing a stimulus to increase a behavior Operant Conditioning- organisms produce a consequence by operating on its environment

42. Glossary Overjustification Hypothesis - person loses personal motivation and justification for doing a task because of an external factor that gives more justification than necessary Pop Behaviorism –popular form of behaviorism in which people are rewarded for what they do. “Do this and you’ll get that.” Reinforcement - the effect of a reinforcer; an increase in the probability of a response reoccurring Reward – a desired object or event made conditional on having fulfilled some criterion: only if you do this will you get that. Vertical Relationship– an association between teacher and student

43. References Bruner, R. H., Schraw, G. J., Norby, M. M., & Ronning, R. R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward and intrinsic motivation: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64(3), 363-423. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Cognitive evaluation theory.
Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. pp. 43-85).
New York: Plenum. Killoran, I. (2003). Why is your homework not done? How theories of development affect your approach in the classroom. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 30 (4): 309-315.

44. References Kohn, A. (1993). Punished By Rewards. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. Lefrancois, (1983). Learning in Psychology (pp. 151-179). Wadsworth Publishing Co. Lepper, M. R. (1988). Motivational considerations in the study of instruction. Cognition and instruction 5(4), 289-309. Lieberman, D. (1993). Reinforcement in Learning. Belmont, CA : Wadsworth. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk D. H. (2001) Motivation in education: Theory, research and applications (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Robinson, J. (1998). To Reward?...or Not to Reward? American Journal of Health Promotion, 13(1), 1-3. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1999). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. Skinner, B.F. Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychology, 45:1209. Quotes from: http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/b._f._skinner/

46. Do you think this is a good example of verbal praise? (You’re a genius!)