Models of sexual response

1. Models of sexual response Stimuli for arousal Kaplan Masters and Johnson Other models

2. What is sexual response? • Sexual arousal has both subjective and physiological components. • Subjectively, sexual arousal is how aroused people believe or say they are. • Physiological arousal is measured as extent of physiological response, especially vasocongestion.

3. Animal models • These are not the best models for human sexual response • Order differences: birds, bees, and mammals • Mammal differences: estrous vs. menstruating • Human distinctives: tools, language, war, opposable thumbs…

4. Gender differences in arousal • For men, there is “a very high correlation between erectile response and how aroused they say they are.” (Cindy Meston, 2003) • For women, such correlations are low to non-existent. • One reason for the difference may be that men are more attentive to physiological sensations than women.

5. Triggers of sexual response:Activating effect • External: • Stimulated sensations • Pheromones • Drugs • Internal: • Brain centers • Learning and socialization • Personal goals • Cognitive interpretations and attributions

6. Sensation triggers: Releasing cues? • “Men are turned on by sight, women by touch.” Is that true? • Primary triggers: Touch—or is it meaning? • Are visual stimuli conditioned? • Physiological arousal to gender of stimuli distinguishes heterosexual from homosexual men. • But women respond genitally the same way to stimuli of all gender combinations, regardless of the women’s sexual orientation (Bailey, 2003).

7. More on sensation triggers • Sounds: A lover’s voice, poetry, music, seductive speech, sex sounds • Tastes and odors: food and drink, perfumes, body cues

8. Pheromones and reproduction • Lee-Boot effect: Slow and stop estrous • Whitten effect: Synchronize estrous • Vandenbergh effect: Early puberty • Bruce effect: Spontaneous abortion • Synchronized menstrual cycles in college women (McClintock, 1971; Preti et al., 1986) • Underarm sweat and menstrual synchrony (Stern & McClintock, 1998; Cutler, 1999)

9. Pheromones and attraction • Doty et al. (1975): Odors of vaginal secretions rated as unpleasant by both men and women…but less so around ovulation • Androstenol necklaces increased women’s social interactions with men, but had no effect on men (Cowley & Brooksbank, 1991) • Human vomeronasal organs can respond to pheromones (Liman, 1999 vs. Morris, 2000)

10. Hormonal control of arousal • Correlational research • Testosterone is the key circulating hormone • Estrogen is the key cellular hormone • Threshold levels of testosterone are necessary for sexual interest in both genders • But testosterone is not a sufficient cause for sexual activity. • Social factors are far more important.

11. Ovarian hormones and arousal • In primates, ovarian hormones do not control the ability to mate. • Most studies find little or no effect of circulating ovarian hormones on sexual behavior. • However, female monkeys who can control their sexual activity engage in sexual activity at peak estradiol times.

12. More on ovarian hormones • Human women studied are almost all married. In marriage, other factors than estradiol influence sexual behavior. • Women on the pill show less variation in sexual interest with the menstrual cycle (Alexander et al., 1990)

13. Sex hormones • Organizing effects: Species-typical mating postures and actions • Activating effects: motivating sexual behavior, and affecting its frequency and intensity • Loss of hormone production is followed by a slow lessening of sexual interest • Previous sexual experience mitigates the change, however.

14. 0 Drugs and sexual arousal • Folk aphrodisiacs • Chocolate, “The ultimate aphrodisiac” • Ginseng, bull or tiger testicles, rhinoceros horn • Oysters and zinc; damiana and other herbs; fruit • Possibly effective aphrodisiacs • Yohimbine in animal studies, clinical trials • Beware compound products containing tadalafil • Arginine, found in yohimbe tree extract, is a precursor of nitric oxide • Cantharides: WARNING! • Testosterone: WARNING! • Dopamine agonists like bupropion and L-DOPA • Date Rape drugs: Rohypnol and GHB

15. 0 Drugs and sexual arousal • Anaphrodisiacs • Alcohol and Shakespeare • Many medications, especially antidepressants • Sildenafil may reverse the antidepressant’s anaphrodisiac effect for women (Nurnberg, Laurellio, & Hensley, 1999) • Anabolic steroids • Blood vessel constrictors like nicotine • Antiandrogens like Depo-Provera, tobacco smoke

16. Kaplan’s therapy-based model • Desire phase • Psychological components • Physical sensations • Vasocongestive phase • Increased blood in genital region • Erectile responses and lubrication • Increased muscle tension

17. Kaplan… • Orgasmic-release phase • Orgasm triggers changes • Reverse of vasocongestive phase

18. Masters and Johnson’s physiological EPOR model • Excitement phase • Increasing genital response • Erection and transudation • Sex flush • Increasing subjective excitement • Plateau phase • Orgasm or climax • Resolution

19. Discussion • Are there differences between men and women in the experiencing of any of the phases of the sexual response cycle?

20. Criticisms of models • Desire phase may be extremely short, or it may be chronic • Plateau experiences are not always found • Continual increase in tension is more often found • The models are biased to the experiences of one gender • Models impose a paradigm on sexual expression

21. Variations from the pattern • Multiple or absent orgasms • Variation in physical correlates of phases • Orgasm focus • Deception • Refractory period • Coolidge effect • Sexual frustration: Prolonged vasocongestion

22. Other models of sexual response • Erotic Stimulus Pathway Theory (Reed, 2002) • Seduction: Actions to enhance attractiveness • Sensations: Feelings and thoughts increase arousal • Surrender: Submit to climax • Reflection: What does the experience mean? • FSD-Alert.org

23. The FSD Manifesto (Tiefer, Tavris, & Hall, 2002) • Challenges the medicalization of women’s sexual problems • 1. Sexual equivalency is denied. • Women do not separate desire from arousal • Women care less about physical than subjective arousal • Women’s sexual complaints are absent from DSM. • Emphasis on equivalency ignores many inequities, such as sexual violence, access to sexual health care, and social environment. • 2. Sexuality is relational, not physiological. • 3. Women are not all the same. • Relational or cultural conflicts, sexual ignorance or fear cause more sexual problems than physical problems, but they go unstudied, in favor of medicalization of problems.

24. A new classification for problems • I. Sexual problems due to socio-cultural, political, or economic factors • II. Sexual problems relating to partner and relationship • III. Sexual problems due to psychological factors • IV. Sexual problems due to medical factors • Does this classification suggest a different model of sexual response? • Does this analysis fit men better, too?

25. Aging and sexual response • Reduced and delayed lubrication • Less vasocongestion • Changes dependent on inactivity • Increased likelihood of erectile failure • Delayed orgasm and erection

26. But the good news is: • Sexual frequency remains unchanged: • In the 20s: Tri-weekly • In the 40s: Try weekly • In the 60s: Try weakly

27. 0 Sandro Botticelli, The birth of Venus, 1485-86

28. 0 Edouard Manet, Le dejeuner sur l’herbe, 1863