Last Week!

1. Last Week! • Exam Saturday, December 17th, 12 noon • Do NOT be late!!! • 65 Multiple choice • 5 of 7 definitions • 4 of 7 short answers • 2 of 3 longer answers • 3 hours long • Short answers and essay CUMULATIVE

2. Intelligence and Testing: History • Brass instruments in 1800s • Wundt (1832 – 1920) • Galton (1822 – 1911) • Cattell (1860 – 1944) • Wissler (in 1901)

3. Testing: History • Advent of the Modern testing • Attitudes towards mentally ill and mentally delayed were changing • Alfred Binet • Developed a scale for the Paris government in 1905

4. Binet’s scale • Had 4 characteristics: • Measured a child’s general mental abilities, and was aimed at classification, not assessment • Brief and practical • Practical judgment was measured rather than low-level abilities • Items arranged by level of difficulty

5. Examples of items 1. Follows object with moving eyes 3. Grasps item that is seen 7. Points to familiar-named object (point to the cup) 10. Compares two lines of markedly unequal length 18. Reproduces from memory 2 designs shown for 10 seconds 22. Compares 5 blocks to put them in order of weight 26. Puts 3 nouns or 3 verbs in a sentence 30. Defines abstract words by designating the difference between them (e.g boredom and weariness)

6. Binet continued • 1908 • Calculation of mental level • Standardization • 1911 • 5 tests for each age level • 1916 • Terman’s influence: people started comparing ration of mental age and chronological age: • Mental age / chronological age = 100

7. IQ testing comes to America • Goddard: • American recruited by Vineland training school to identify and classify “feebleminded” children

8. MA and diagnosis of Vineland Residents tested with a translation of the Simon-Binet

9. The Simon-Binet comes to America • Goddard imports test • Normal sample of 1 547 normal children yielded 3% of these children were feebleminded • His work on Ellis Island in 1910

10. Group Testing • Army needed a fast way to assess potential recruits • Yerkes’ Army Alpha & Army Beta • Alpha had 8 verbally loaded subtests

11. Following Oral Directions: mark a cross in the 1st and also the 3rd circle: Arithmetical Reasoning: How many men are 5 men and 10 men? Synonym-Antonym pairs: Are these the same or opposites? accumulate - dissipate Number Series Completion: Complete the series: 3 6 8 16 18 36… … Analogies: Complete the analogy: Tears-sorrow:: laughter joy smile girls grin

12. Group Testing • 0 was most common score on Army alpha

13. Yerkes (1921) calculation of Army Alpha Data

14. Group testing con’d • Army Beta designed for illiterates or for people whose first language was not English • Consisted of mazes, mentally counting blocks, number-symbol completions

15. Army beta tests Test 3 Test 4 O O O O… 62 62 59 56 327 327 249 249 1536 1536 3745 3745 45010 45001 62019 62019 X X X X… OOXOOXOOX… XXXOXOXXXOXO... Test 7

16. Group testing con’d • Very bizarre testing conditions • Brigham’s misuse of the data

17. Brigham’s (1923) use of Yerkes’ data

18. History of Intelligence Testing, summary • Attempts to measure intelligence have been laden with problems, and the use of the measures is questionable • How you develop a test will depend on how you define and see intelligence

19. Some Views of Intelligence • Spearman: a general ability which involves mainly the eduction of relations and correlates • Binet & Simon: the ability to judge well, to understand well, and to reason well • Piaget: A generic term to indicate superior forms of organization and equilibrium of cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the physical and social environment

20. Definitions of Intelligence • Problems with operational definitions • Layperson’s and expert’s definitions are similar • Experts agree on 2 part definition: • The capacity to learn from experience • The capacity to learn from one’s environment

21. Approaches to Intelligence • Spearman’s g • Finds high correlations between various subtests • One general factor (g) and several specific factors (s1, s2, s3, etc…) • Invented factor analysis • Performance due to g and a specific ability on the subfactors • g was energy or power in the whole cortex, and the s factor was a substrate

22. Cattell • Distinguished between fluid and crystallized intelligence • Fluid = nonverbal, culture-reduced, learning and problem-solving • Crystallized = Language and world knowledge

23. Piaget • Cognitive stages are progression in intelligence, and process of adaptation is reflection of intelligence • Performance on conservation tasks was his indication of intelligence, had to match age and stage

24. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences • 8 criteria for an intelligence: • Potential isolation by brain damage • Existence of idiot savants • Identifiable core operations • Distinctive developmental history • Evolutionary plausibility • Support from experimental psychology • Support from psychometric findings • Susceptibility to symbol encoding

25. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences • 9 intelligences: • Linguistic Intelligences • Musical intelligences • Logical-Mathematical intelligences • Spatial intelligences • Bodily Kinesthetic intelligences • Interpersonal intelligences • Intrapersonal intelligences • Naturalist intelligences • Spirituality/existential intelligences

26. Information Processing approaches • Like in other cognitive domains, look at how knowledge base, speed of processing, working memory, and metacognition affect performance on tests of intelligence

27. Scales • Stanford-Binet • Heavily verbal • Wechsler Scales • Differs from above in terms of non-verbal items • Kaufman Assessment Battery for children • Heavily non-verbal and believed to be culture-fair, and E. has more flexibility when administering • Bayley scales • Measures infant intelligence

28. IQ: Nature or Nurture? • Heritability index • Evidence for Nature • Honzik • Evidence for Nurture • Skeels • Teratogens • Fetal alcohol syndrome and Fetal alcohol effect

29. Differences between groups? • Problems occur when we take previous arguments and apply them to individual groups • Making IQ inherited is making it a characteristic that is necessarily destined and immutable • Started with Cyril Burt, whose work guided policy in the ‘60s and ‘70s

30. Differences between groups? • Cyril Burt faked his data • His defenders were large proponents of inherent racial differences in IQ, e.g. Jensen • The Bell Curve by Herrnstein and Murray

31. The Bell Curve • Relies on faulty statistical analysis • Relies on work of problematic work of J. Phillipe Rushton

32. Racial differences in IQ, con’d • Genetic hypothesis is also untenable for 2 very strong reasons: • Problems with generalizing within-group differences to between group differences • A crucial prediction does not hold up: degree of ancestry has no effect on IQ (Scarr, 1977)

33. Intelligence and cognitive development • Transactional model of development Environment  Genotype  Phenotype Phenotype Genotype Environment There is continuous interaction of child’s constitution and the environment over time

34. Example of SES and intelligence • Children from high SES homes have higher IQ than those from low SES homes • BUT…SES does not work alone • Related to home environment, peer group, academic expectations etc…so could be any of these things or all of them

35. Back to Heritability • How much of a trait is there because of genes? • Heritability is not independent of environment (debate is extent of contribution of each)

36. Behavioural Genetics • May not be g that is inherited, but rather aspects of information-processing • Memory capacity • Neural transmission • Durability of memory traces • These develop over time and may be more susceptible to environmental effects

37. Behavioural Genetics con’d • Degree of relatedness can predict heritability of IQ • Genetics accounts for about 50% of variance, more so in MZt • Varies from population to population and from culture to culture • More correlated over time

38. Behavioural Genetics • Large effects of environment also found: why? • Nature side looks at correlations…

39. Correlation of IQ as a function of Genetic Similarity

40. Effects of environment • Nurture side looks at means • Scarr & Weinberg: • Disadvantaged children adopted into advantaged home show big jump in IQ, similar to their adoptive parents • BUT IQ still predicted by birth mother’s education level… HOW??? – They maintain rank order, but IQ changes

41. Effects of early experience • Deprivation in the 1st 2 months of life can have a detrimental effect on intellectual and social development • Institution and War children • Home environment can also affect intellectual development • Use of HOME scale

42. HOME scale • 6 subscales to measure type of early environment child is in • Emotional and verbal responsivity of Mother • Avoidance of restriction and punishment • Organization of physical and temporal env. • Provision of appropriate play materials • Maternal Involvement with the child • Opportunities for variety in daily stimulation

43. HOME scale • Correlation between score on HOME scale and Stanford-Binet score at age 2 • Predicts academic performance at age 11 • BUT maintenance depends on child’s future environment (risk factors)

44. Interaction of risk factors • Caughy (1996) looked at biological risk factors (Low birth weight, hospitalization) and environmental risk factors (low income, low maternal education) • Impact of biological risk factors can be mediated by good home, low environmental risk factors

45. More environmental effects… • Maternal behaviours predicts child’s intellectual development • Legerstee revisited

46. Effect of Child • Piaget’s views of child as active • Child’s behaviour will affect how they are treated • Children have personalities, and can control their environment

47. Stability of Intellectual Functioning • Can be changed for the better • Skeels’ institution study • Preschool program can help • Head Start • Can also change for the worse • Children can lose early benefits if environment is drastically changed

48. Back to infants’ DQ • Looking at specific processing skills is more fruitful than looking at overall functioning • Strong correlations found between infants’ “preference for novelty” and later IQ • Suggests an underlying process that child uses over early years that predicts later learning

49. And that, my friends, is cognitive development… 

50. Remember exam is Cumulative!