SOURCES OF KNOWLDGE

1. SOURCES OF KNOWLDGE EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

2. Where do we get information we want? • (Source of knowledge) • 1. Experience • 2. Authority • 3. Deductive reasoning • 4. Inductive reasoning • Experiences, what does it mean? • But, what’s the problem? • Overgeneralization • Selected observation. • Premature closure • Halo Effect EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

3. Authority/expert opinion People sometimes seek opinion form someone who has the experience or knowledge. We see physician for health problems, we see stockbrokers for investment etc. Who are the authorities? Parents, teachers, expert, books Quick, simple and cheap way to learn something Is the answer or solution valid and reliable? It depends on the credentials of the experts. They give opinions based on what the person knows EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

4. Tradition That is the authority of the past Misalnya: kenapabuatbegini? Orang dah biasabuatbegini, sakitnyabaik EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

5. Common sense Kalau hukuman tak berat, penagih makin ramai EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

6. Media myth Apa yang digambarkanoleh media semuanyabetul EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

7. Deductive reasoning (Proses Logik) Reaching conclusion through logic From general to specific A system of organizing known facts in order to reach a conclusion through a logic process Bermuladenganpremis [supporting evidence] (major dan minor) danberakhirdenganrumusan Untukmembolehkanrumusanitubenar, makapremismestilahbenar. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

8. Contoh deductive reasoning ORANG MALAYSIA ADALAH ORANG ASIA. (major premise) AHMAD ADALAH ORANG MALAYSIA. (minor premise) OLEH ITU AHMAD ADALAH ORANG ASIA. (Conclusion) All human beings are mortal Sally is a human being Therefore, Sally is mortal every mammal has lungs All rabbits are mammals Therefore, every rabbit has a lung EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

9. ** both major and minor premise must be true to come to a true conclusion** ** if either one is fall the conclusion may not be true** As long as the first two statements are true, the third statement must be true. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

10. Inductive reasoning-empirism Conclusion is reached by observing examples and generalizing from example to the whole class In deductive, premise must be known and true before a true conclusion can be reached. But, how one is to know if the premises are true? EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

11. Untuklebihpastilagimengenaiketepatanrumusan , kitamesticerapsemuacontoh. Dan inidikenaliPERFECT INDUCTION Tetapidalamkeadaansebenar, pencerapankeatassemua unit adalahtidakpraktikal, makakitaakanbuatimperfect induction berdasarkanpencerapan yang tidaklengkap. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

12. Kita hanyamampubuat perfect induction bagikumpulankecilsahaja. Sesuaturumusan yang kitabuatuntuksuatukumpulankeciltidaksemestinyabenaruntukkumpulan lain. Olehitukitabiasanyabuat imperfect induction di manakitacerap sample kemudiankita infer kepadakeseluruhankumpulan. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

13. Example of inductive reasoning Every rabbit that has ever been observed has lung Therefore, every rabbits has lungs EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

14. KAEDAH SAINTIFIK- empirical approach Ialah kombinasi deduktif dan induktif Sebabnya : pengumpulan data secara induction alone (isolated knowledge) tak banyak memberi sumbangan kepada kemajuan pengetahuan dan banyak masalah tidak dapat diselesaikan secara induction semata-mata EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

15. A process in which investigators move inductively from their observation to hypothesis and then deductively from hypothesis to the logical implication of the hypothesis. The use of hypothesis is a principal difference between scientific approach and inductive reasoning. In inductive-one makes observations first. Scientific-hypothesis than make observation EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

16. Scientific Method • “ Science is a way of thinking that involves continuous and systematic interplay of rationale thought and empirical observation • The 6 Basic Components of Science • Understanding a topic and prior research on that topic. • Develop a research question or theory. • Developing procedures to answer the question or test the theory. • Planning for, and then making appropriate empirical observations. • Rationally interpreting the empirical observations. • Publishing/disseminating findings and interpretations. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

17. The Empirical Approach The “WHY”, “WHOM”, “HOW”, and “WHEN” of research! WHY: establishes the need for the study, and generates a series of expected results, or hypotheses. WHOM: what population, and whether the population or a sample HOW: selection of variables to observe, and how to statistically analyze them WHEN: establishes the need for the study Acquired data may be numbers or narrative, depending on the type of Research Quantitative Qualitative EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

18. The 4 Basic Assumptions of Science 1. A true, physical universe exists. 2. The universe is primarily an orderly system. 3. The principles of this orderly universe can be discovered, particularly through scientific research. 4. Our knowledge of the universe is always incomplete. a) new knowledge can, and should, alter current ideas and theories. Therefore, ` b) all knowledge and theories are tentative. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

19. 5 steps of a typical scientific inquiry 1. Identify the problem-disturbance in schools 2. Define the problem – make it clear what exactly the problem is 3. Formulate hypothesis- will …this is the possibility 4. Project consequences-what if? what would happen if we… 5. Test hypothesis Rumusan EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

20. Proses of mainting motosikal. Goes over the bump: misfire, go again misfire again, several times. Go over smooth stretch- nothing happen, go over bump- misfire again, then we can conlcude that misfiring was caused by bump. This is inductive Iaitu kita mula dengan pemerhatian baru kita buat keputusan. Katakan kita tak boleh start engine kereta. Kita tahu to start a car you need power which is powered by the battery. Dengan itu jika batery mati, maka kereta tak boleh dihidupkan. Dan ini adalah deduction. Start with general knowledge and predict specific observation. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

21. Kekangan kaedah saintifik dalam sosial sains Complexity subject matter with human subject. Variables Difficulty in making generalization Kesukaran pencerapan/pemerhatian Subjective interpretation Kesukaran mengulangi kajian EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

22. Limitation of scientific approach EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

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25. Attitudes of scientists EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

26. Role of Theory In Research Theories explain relationships between discrete observations. • Not all research tests or develops theories • Most research relies on theories to develop hypotheses. • Theories can be: Deductive Inductive. Theory leads to development Theory formulated from Hypothesis discrete observation EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

27. What is a theory? A set of interelated constructs (concepts), defination, and propositions that presents a systematic view of of phenomena by specifing relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. Theory knit together the results of observations, enabling scientist to make general statements about variables and the relationships among variables EDU5900 AB. RAHIM

28. Purposes of theories • Explain why…… • Predict what will… • Suggest control… EDU5900 AB. RAHIM