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Lecture 7: Enlightenment. Ann T. Orlando 25 April 2007. Introduction. History Review Enlightenment Real question: how do we ‘know’ and what is relation to belief in God Enlightenment answer is one of either presumption or despair
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Lecture 7: Enlightenment Ann T. Orlando 25 April 2007
Introduction • History Review • Enlightenment • Real question: how do we ‘know’ and what is relation to belief in God • Enlightenment answer is one of either presumption or despair • In my opinion we are no longer doing history, but modern analysis
Political Developments in Europe (1500 – 1850) • England: Tudors, Revolution, Restoration with broader democracy, American Revolution, King as head of State • France: Strong Kings, Revolution, Napoleon, Restoration, Revolution, Democracy, sometimes King as head of State • Germany: Separate Duchies, Revolution, Strong National Leader (Bismarck), King as head of State • Italy: Separate states; Revolution; National Unity with Democracy, end of Papal States, King as Head of State
Papacy • Paul III, pope 1543-1549 • Concerned about reform of Church • Approved Jesuits • Called Council of Trent • Popes 17th and 18th C faced with rising ‘national’ Catholicism • Gallicanism (France) • Febronianism (Germany) • Josephism (HRE) • Tension between national interests and universal Church interests leads to suppression of Jesuit order in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV • After Napoleon, Catholic countries view papacy as politically stabilizing force; Congress of Vienna, 1815, restores Papal States • Papacy becomes increasingly ‘conservative’ in reaction to European political and ideological turmoil during 18th and 19th C • Pope Pius IX, pope 1846-1878 • Considered a liberal, but shocked by revolutions of 1848 • Negotiates Church rights with many European governments (concordats) • Issues Syllabus of Errors condemning much enlightenment thought • Promotes Thomism as ‘official’ theology of Church • Convenes V I in 1869 • Loses Papal States in 1870 • Beatified along with John XXIII in 2000
Development of a new secular philosophy: Enlightenment • Science (as we now define it) as the basis for knowledge; • Human reason can figure it (anything, everything) out; is always making progress • Devalue history, tradition • Toleration as the basis for political-religious relationship; • Separation of Church and State • Individual rights, not duty, as basis for political systems and society; • Social contract not natural law as basis of legal system • Becomes an alternative to established religions
Church and Physics in the Thirteenth through the Seventeenth Century • Just as scholastic theology relied on Aristotle, so did medieval physics • Earth-centered cosmology • All substances composed of matter and form • No change to celestial spheres beyond the moon • Velocity is inversely proportional to density of medium through which an object moves; therefore a vacuum is impossible
New Observations in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries • Telescope allows observations of heavens that calls older physics into question • Reveals changes in sun, moons of Jupiter • Earth revolves around the sun • New understanding of velocity • Dropped balls fall at same rate, regardless of weight • Velocity of a body not defined by resistance of medium • Experiments with gasses leads to speculation about atomic theory of matter, not matter and form
Catholicism and Early Modern Science • Galileo (1564-1642) controversy • Church silences Galileo because of his theory that earth revolved around sun • But the Jesuits also supported Kepler against Protestant attackers • Part of Robert Bellarmine’s argument against Galileo was that his circular orbits were not consistent with observations; epicycles explained astronomical observations better than circular orbits • Real question: Where is knowledge to be found? • Church rejects the argument that only physics has access to truth; rejects attempts to relativize (trivialize) revelation
The Revival of Hellenistic Philosophy • In rejection of Aristotelianism, new philosophical and political theories ‘reached back’ to the ‘golden era’ of Rome and Hellenistic philosophy: Stoicism, Epicureanism • Scientific theories developed around both cause and effect, as well as atomic motion
The Enlightenment Emphasis on Science • Before Enlightenment ‘science’ meant any area of human knowledge • During the Enlightenment it comes to mean investigation of nature by our senses through inductive reasoning and then applying mathematical models to describe observations • Key Enlightenment Scientists • Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) • Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) • Robert Boyle (1627-1691) • Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Philosophical Developments During the 17th C • Rationalist: Knowledge is from ideas • Rene Descartes (1596-1650) • Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) • Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) • Empiricists: Knowledge is from senses • Francis Bacon (1561-1626) • Pierre Gassendi (1597-1655) • Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) • John Locke (1632-1704)
The Giant of the Scientific Age: Isaac Newton • The most famous man in Europe in his own day and thereafter until Einstein • Founder of calculus • Fundamental discoveries in optics, mechanics, gravitation • Very deeply religious; focuses on Biblical exegesis, not physics, at end of his life • But rejected Jesus as divine; considered himself an Arian • Alexander Pope: “Nature and nature's laws lay hid by night; God said let Newton be and all was light”
Religion and Science: Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle • Newton • At the end of his Opticks, he tries to distance himself from Epicurean ethics. He was concerned that a corpuscular theory of light could be interpreted as support for Epicurean philosophy • Newton’s favorite verse was Acts 17:28; he knew it was Stoic poetry; he tried to use this to explain how gravity could work across ‘empty’ space • Boyle • Called his units is gases corpuscles rather than atoms because he did not want his theory used to support Epicurean philosophy • Left an endowment for Christian lectures to be given in London opposing Epicureanism
Epistemological Reaction: Skepticism • Begins in Seventeenth Century, but finds most eloquent voices in Eighteenth Century • Neither science nor religion can provide certain knowledge • Voltaire (1694-1778) becomes a skeptic • Satirizes “best of all possible worlds” • Shaken by Lisbon earthquake of 1755 • David Hume (1711-1776) • Sharp attacks on natural religion or deism • But equally sharp against presumptions of science
Philosophical Giant: John Locke • Epistemology: how do we know? • Through our senses and more specifically our experiences • At birth mind is a blank slate • Simple ideas come from senses, mind builds more complex ideas from simple ones • But experience can be communal; does not have to be personal • Theology; deeply religious, believed that revelation was ‘real’ • Above human reason (revelation) • Contrary to reason • According to reason • Political Science • Man born with God-given rights of life, liberty and possessions (broadly defined) • Second Treatise on Government profoundly influential • Letter on Toleration • Strongly believed in natural law as basis for human laws: Carolina Constitution
18th C French and American Political Philosophy • Based upon John Locke • Puritan sermons in 18th C America frequently referred to “the great Mr. Locke” • Voltaire considered Locke one of the most important men of the previous generation • One of Jefferson’s three heroes (the other two being Bacon and Newton) • John Adams thought John Locke one of most important men who ever lived • Emphasize individual liberty and rights over duty to society
American Revolution:New Political Structures • American Revolution (1776-1781), based on philosophy of John Locke (1632-1704) • Champion of individual rights • Religious toleration • Not clear (still isn’t) what is relation between religion and politics in America • Most States had an official religion; see for instance John Adams’ Constitution of Massachusetts • First Amendment to Constitution says only that Congress will not establish a religion; • Thomas Jefferson extends this to separation of Church and State (1802)
French Revolution (1789-1799):Extreme Enlightenment • Impetus comes from group of 18th C French philosophers: philosophes (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Turgot, Condorcet) • Philosophes embraced John Locke and science; encouraged by American Revolution • Franklin, Paine, Jefferson and Adams in France; • Adams writes against Turgot and Condorcet and notion of progress without sense of duty • Jefferson supports the philosophes and the Terror • Use it as a weapon against ‘throne and altar’ • Voltaire’s ‘Smile of Reason’ turns into glare of tyranny • Individual rights and toleration get replaced by suspicion of ‘enemy of people’ and a new ‘religion’; • Active persecution of Church
American Election of 1800 Choice over: Adams vs. Jefferson: Role of Religion in Society and American view of French Revolution
Epicurean Philosophy in Intellectual America • Jefferson’s acceptance of Epicureanism has become increasingly prevalent in American culture • Ethics based on personal pleasure • although in contemporary society pleasure is often defined as momentary fleeting pleasure, rather than long term peace of mind • Importance of individual rights over common good (abortion) • Self-sufficiency of individual is primary virtue, not harmony of society • Importance of science and technology; progress of human mind • God is not recognized as important in people’s lives
19th and 20th C New Nationalisms • 19th and early 20th C period of violent revolutions in Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Russia) • Also a period of violent revolutions and wars of independence throughout Western Hemisphere, Asia and Africa • Growth of labor movements opposed to oppression of laissez faire capitalism • Under the pretense of ‘will of the people’ new totalitarian regimes form in many countries • Marxism develops a theory of history and society that portrays religion as a phase that enlightened peoples will out grow • No child of 20th C can think that Enlightenment has led to a golden age: Shoah, gulags, racial wars, World Wars, etc., etc., etc.
Catholicism’s Response • Syllabus of Errors, 1864 • Series of anathemas of Enlightenment views • Crude and ineffectual • Vatican I (1866-1870) • Reaffirmed that we can have sure knowledge in faith and morals (infallibility of Pope, Thomism as official theology) • Reaffirmed that religion is important to society’s well being • Reaffirm the importance of natural law • Increased spiritual devotion: Lourdes 1858, Fatima 1917 • Vatican II (1962-1965) • Toleration defined as toleration of religion against secular societies trying to prevent religious practice • Concern about new economic systems and materialism, whether Marxist or capitalist, that in fact undermine dignity of individual and families • Renewal of liturgical practices; often based upon early Christian practice