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Functionalism. Functionalism. Reigned as the dominant theoretical perspective. Often referred to as structural functionalism Two leading functionalist Talcott Parsons Robert Merton. Intellectual Roots of Functionalism. The most significant forerunners of functionalism were: Auguste Comte
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Functionalism • Reigned as the dominant theoretical perspective. • Often referred to as structural functionalism • Two leading functionalist • Talcott Parsons • Robert Merton
Intellectual Roots of Functionalism • The most significant forerunners of functionalism were: • Auguste Comte • Herbert Spencer • Emile Durkheim • Max Weber
Auguste Comte (1789-1857) • Science relies upon empirical knowledge. • Through his notions of social statistics and social dynamics he established a direction for social research. • Through social static’s Comte maintained that units of investigation were the individual, family, society and the species.
Auguste Comte (1789-1857) • Social dynamics, which today is known as social change. • Organic Analogy • Described the social structure as • Elements (families) • Tissues (classes) • Organs (cities)
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) • Influenced by Von Baer. • Acknowledged the role of environmental variables in social organization • Super Organism (society) • The Organism (body) • Concept of differentiation is very important.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) • Process of growth is a process of integration. • In 1898 argued that societies change from incoherent homogeneity to definite heterogeneity. • Premodern Societies vs. Modern Societies • Social institutions arise from structural requirements.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) • His study on suicide rates was recognized for one of the most important programs of research in the last generation. • Theory supported by empirical data provides legitimacy. • Validity of a structural functioning system is needed.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) • His sociology maintained a focus on structural analysis rather than individual action. • Shared Comte’s functionalist, evolutionary and positive premises. • Functionalism was the idea that society is a system. • Interested in how societies change over time. • Crime and deviance serve a functional role in society.
Max Weber (1864-1920) • He caught Parson’s interest by his spiritual orientation. • Stated that Protestant ethic was responsible for rise of the spirit of capitalism. • His analysis marked the 1st major development in systematic discrimination.
Linguistics and the Anthropoligical Tradition Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) • Saussure was a Swiss linguist who was very significant in the development of functionalism.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) • Distinction between Langue and Parole • Langue • Formal, grammatical system of language • Meaning of words can be altered • Ex: the word gay once meant “happy”; now it also means “homosexual”. • Parole • Actual speech such as facial expressions and body language.
Anthropologists who influenced functionalism: Clause Levi-Strauss A.R. Radcliffe-Brown Bronislaw Malinowski
Claude Levi-Strauss • Applied structuralism more broadly to all forms of communication. • Major innovation was to reconceptualized social phenomena.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown • Organismic analogizing presents teleological implications. • Attempted to eliminate problems.
Bronislaw Malinowski • Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown both committed to scientific methodology. • Focused attention of existing societies.
Defining Functionalism • A macro sociological theory that examines social patterns and structures. • Views society as having interrelated parts. • Explains social change by variables such as population growth and increased technology. • Two basic assumptions: • Idea of interdependent parts • Consensus of values.
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) • One of the most prominent theorists of his time. • Attempted to generate a grand theory of society.
Robert Merton (1910-2003) • Raised in South Philadelphia slum. • Merton was not the family name, he changed his name from Meyer R. Schkolnick. • Received B.A. from Temple University and doctorate from Harvard.
Robert Merton (1910-2003) • Always stressed importance of empirical research. • Goal was to keep functional assumptions to a minimum. • His functionalist theories are “middle-range” variety. • Despite differences, Parsons and Merton are known as the leaders of the structural functionalism school of thought.
Theories of the Middle Range • Merton felt grand theories were too abstract. • Middle range is principally used to guide empirical inquiry. • They are functionalist theories that consist of limited sets of assumptions. • Durkheim’s Suicide and Weber’s Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism are examples.
Theories of the Middle Range • Role sets are an important element. • For Merton, the term function does not mean the same thing as purpose. • Merton promoted a process referred to as codification.
Anomie Theory • Initially developed by Durkheim. • The success goal in American culture leads many feelings of anomie. • It is the conflict between cultural goals and availability of institutional means. • Theory on the study of social deviance. • Two most important elements of structures: (1) culturally defined goals (2) Institutionalized Means
Merton described five types of individual adaptations • Conformity • Innovation • Ritualistics • Retreatism • Rebellion
Manifest and Latent Functions • Merton came to distinguish between two usages for the word function: • Manifest Functions -consequences that are expected • Latent Functions -consequences that are not intended
Dysfunctions • A performance with disrupting consequences. • Dysfunctional events lessen the effective equilibrium of society. • Merton’s concept of dysfunctions is central to his argument that functionalism is not conservative.
Empirical Research • Different research methods are necessary for different empirical problems. • Consistently drew links between theory and research. • For Merton theorizing was always important.
Neofunctionalism and Post Functionalism • Well known neofunctionalists: • Niklas Luhmann • Anthony Giddens • Jeffrey C. Alexander
Niklas Luhmann (1927-1998) • In 1949 received a law degree at the University of Freiburg. • Spent a year studying under Parsons. • Witnessed firsthand his country’s defeat and concluded that modern society was not a better place to live.
Niklas Luhmann (1927-1998) • Argued that modern world is too complex. • Very difficult to read his work. • Stressed the importance of grand theory. • Described general systems theory as having two important elements: • Distinction of the whole • The concept of self-referential systems
Niklas Luhmann (1927-1998) • His focus remains on the system not the individual. • Social systems consist primarily of communication networks. • Created a communication theory that stressed human communication as reflexive.
Anthony Giddens (1938-present) • Few theorists have been as productive. • Produced 31 books and more than 200 articles. • Takes a postmodernist point of view. • Believes classical ideas must be repaired
Anthony Giddens (1938-present) • Referred to his approach as the theory of structuration. • Views social systems as continuous flows of conduct in time and space. • For years has been working in area of globalization. • Three key areas of power: • Government • Economy • Communities of Civil Society
Alexander is credited with coining term neofunctionalism. Views neofunctionalism as part of the evolutionary growth. Smelser is considered a top level theorist in neofunctionalism. Believes people seek to avoid experience of ambivalence. Ambivalence refers to such phenomena as death and seperation. Jeffrey C. Alexander and Neil Smelser
Relevancy • Every sociologist is a functionalist because sociology IS functionalism. • Functionalism fails to explain social change. • Functionalism fails to explain most important terms: • Structure • Function • Social system • Safe to say functionalists approach will remain around for many years to come.
