Learning and Cognition

1. Learning and Cognition Review Session 6

2. Learning • A long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience • Can best be measured through changes in behavior • Classical Conditioning • Operant Conditioning • Observational Learning

3. Classical conditioning • Ivan Pavlov- studying digestive secretions in dogs • People and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that produce involuntary responses and will learn to respond similarly to a new stimulus

4. Classical conditioning

5. Classical conditioning • Unconditioned stimulus(UCS)- elicits a certain predictable response without previous training (food) • Unconditioned response (UCR)- automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus (salivation) • Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a once neutral response that elicits a given response after a period of training in which is has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (tuning fork sound) • Conditioned response (CR)- the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (salivating to the tuning fork)

6. Classical conditioning • Acquisition- the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened- timing and order matter! • Works best with delayed conditioning- the bell is rung and while it is still ringing, the dogs are presented with the food • Presenting the US and then the CS is very ineffective (called backward conditioning)

7. Classical conditioning • Extinction- diminishing of a CR • in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS • Dog no longer salivates to the bell • Spontaneous Recovery- reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR • Dog begins to salivate to the bell again

8. Classical conditioning • Generalization • tendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses • Discrimination • in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal and UCS

9. Common Conditioned Responses

10. Classical conditioning • Little Albert Study • John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a boy to fear a white rat • Generalize d the fear to a variety of other white, fluffy things • Aversive conditioning- conditioned to have a negative response to something

11. First order and second order conditioning

12. Biology and Classical conditioning • Animals and humans are biologically prepared to make some connections easier than others • Learned taste aversions- can result based on a single UCS/CS pairing • Most common with a salient CS- must be easily noticeable (strong and unusual)

13. Biology and classical Conditioning • Garcia and Koelling- rats more readily make some associations than others

14. Operant conditioning • Type of learning in which behavior is • strengthened if followed by reinforcement or • diminished if followed by punishment • Edward Thorndike • Cat in a puzzle box, locked in its cage next to its food • The amount of time needed to get out of the puzzle box decreased gradually • No mental activity- simply connecting a stimulus and a response

15. Operant conditioning • Law of Effect • Thorndike’s principle that • behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely (S-R connection strengthened) • behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely (S-R connection weakened) • Instrumental learning- consequence is instrumental in shaping future behaviors

16. Operant conditioning • B.F. Skinner- coined the term “operant conditioning” • Invented the Skinner Box, which has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or a disk to press in order to get the food

17. Operant conditioning- Reinforcement • Reinforcer • any event that strengthens the behavior it follows • Positive Reinforcement • Something wanted is added after an action • Social approval • Money • Tokens • Negative reinforcement • Something unpleasant is taken away after an action • Taking aspirin to relieve a headache • Fanning oneself to escape the heat • Leaving the movie theatre if the movie is bad • Putting on a seatbelt to avoid the irritating buzz

18. Operant conditioning • Escape conditioning- allows one to terminate an aversive stimulus • Avoidance conditioning- enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether

19. Operant conditioning- Punishment • Punishment • aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows • powerful controller of unwanted behavior • Positive punishment- adding something unpleasant • Spanking • Detention • Negative punishment- taking away something positive • Losing cell phone privileges • Grounding

20. Punishment vs. reinforcement • Punishment is most effective if delivered immediately after the unwanted behavior and it is harsh • May result in fear and anger • Should be used sparingly

21. Punishment vs. reinforcement • Shaping • conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal • Successive Approximations • reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior • Chaining • Learning how to perform a number of responses successively to get a reward

22. Punishment vs. reinforcement • Primary Reinforcer • innately reinforcing stimulus • satisfies a biological need • Secondary Reinforcer • conditioned reinforcer • learned through association with primary reinforcer • Generalized reinforcer- money • Can be traded for virtually anything • Token economies

23. Punishment vs. reinforcement • The terms acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, discrimination and generalization can also be used in operant conditioning • Premack Principle- the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation

24. Reinforcement schedules • Interval- time, Ratio- number • Variable are more resistant to extinction than fixed • Partial are more resistant to extinction than continuous

25. Operant conditioning • Limits exist to what animals can learn to do • Instinctive drift- go back to typical patterns of behavior • Cognitive theorists believe that there is a cognitive component as well

26. Observational learning • Learning by observing and imitating others • Modeling- observation + imitation • Bandura’s Social Learning Theory • Bobo Doll Study • Children learn violent behaviors from adults

27. Latent learning • Learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it • Edward Tolman • Rats formed cognitive maps of a maze

28. Practice questions • 1) Try as you might, you are unable to teach your dog to do a somersault. He will roll around on the ground, but he refuses to execute the gymnastics move you desire because of • Instinctive drift • Preparedness • Equipotentiality • Chaining • Shaping

29. 2) Tina likes to play with slugs, but she can find them by the shed only after it rains. On what kind of reinforcement is Tina’s slug hunting? • Continuous • Fixed-interval • Fixed-ratio • Variable-interval • Variable-ratio

30. 3) Before his parents will read him a bedtime story, Charley has to brush his teeth, put on his pajamas, kiss his grandmother goodnight, and put away his toys. This example illustrates • Shaping • Acquisition • Generalizing • Chaining • A toke economy

31. 4) Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? • Buying a child a video game after she throws a tantrum • Going inside to escape a thunderstorm • Assigning a student detention for fighting • Getting a cavity filled at the dentist to halt a toothache • Depriving a prison inmate of sleep

32. 5) Just before something scary happens in a horror film, they often play scary sounding music. When I hear the music, I tense up in anticipation of the scary event. In this situation, the music serves as a • US • CS • UR • CR • NR

33. 6) Just before the doors of the elevator close, Lola, a coworker that you despise, enters the elevator. You immediately leave, mumbling something about having forgotten something. Your behavior results in • Positive reinforcement • A secondary reinforcer • Punishment • Negative reinforcement • Omission training

34. 7) Many psychologists believe that children of parents who beat them are more likely to beat their own children. One common explanation for this phenomenon is • Modeling • Latent learning • Abstract learning • Instrumental learning • Classical conditioning

35. 8) With which statement would B.F. Skinner most likely agree? • Pavlov’s dog learned to expect the food would follow the bell. • Baby Albert though the white rate meant the loud noise would sound • All learning is observable • Pigeons peck disks knowing that they will receive food. • Cognition plays an important role in learning