How to Write Scientifically

1. How to Write Scientifically

2. Swim against the current • In direct opposition to everything your high school English teacher taught you… • We’re simply conveying information • Be direct, to the point, without “fluff” • The shorter and more concise, the better!

3. Writing about science: Effective writing about science is clear and interesting. Here are seven topics to consider: • Quality • Abbreviations • Objective language • Passive Voice • Past or Present • Sentences • Paragraphs

4. Quality • Be clear – avoid unnecessary detail! • Be simple – use direct language and avoid vague and complicated sentences • Be unbiased – state the facts and only the facts and then, support your statements with evidence! Also, avoid assumptions such as “Everyone knows that…”

5. Quality • Be logical – write sequentially and use section headings if necessary • Be concise – too many words can be confusing and can lose the point

6. Concise Consider this, from a well-known Materials text: “The selection of the proper material is a key step in the design process because it is the crucial decision that links computer calculations and the lines on an engineering drawing with a real or working design”. What does it say? “Materials selection is important”, and we knew that already. It is wasting the reader’s time.

7. Don’t turn verbs into nouns Provide a review review Offer confirmation of confirm Make a decision decide Shows a peak peaks Take an assessment of assess Has seen expansion in has expanded

8. Don’t turn verbs into nouns Example: During DNA damage, recognition of H3K4me3 by ING2 results in the recruitment of Sin3/HDAC and repression of cell proliferation genes. -or- During DNA damage, H3K4me3 recruits ING2 and Sin3/HDAC which together repress cell proliferation genes.

9. Practice • Rewrite this sentence: This paper provides a review of the basic tenets of cancer biology study design using, as examples, studies that illustrate the methodologic challenges or that demonstrate successful solutions to the difficulties inherent in biological research.

10. My solution after much WORK: This paper provides a review of the basic tenets of cancer biology study design using, as examples, studies that illustrate the methodologic challenges or that demonstrate successful solutions to the difficulties inherent in biological research. ↓ This paper reviews cancer biology study design using examples that illustrate specific challenges and successful solutions.

11. One more: As it is well known, increased athletic activity has been related to a profile of lower cardiovascular risk, lower blood pressure levels, and improved muscular and cardio-respiratory performance.

12. My rewrite: As it is well known, increased athletic activity has been related to a profile of lower cardiovascular risk, lower blood pressure levels, and improved muscular and cardio-respiratory performance. ↓ Increased athletic activity lowers cardiovascular risk and blood pressure and improves fitness

13. Shortening phrases Wordy versionShort version A majority of most Are of the same opinion agree Give rise to cause Due to the fact that because Have an effect on affect

14. Abbreviations • Use abbreviations when possible • Make sure to define them first! • Ex. In retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) • However, minimize the use of acronyms and abbreviations. • Ex. The MEM, analyzed by FE methods, was photographed by SEM and chemically characterized by SAM.

15. Passive Voice Scientific language often uses the passive voice to convey what was done and not who did what. • Ex. Ten milliliters of acetone was added to the mixture. • Instead of: I added ten milliliters of acetone.

16. However: • Which is clearer? • Difficulty was experienced in evaluating bias… • OR • I had difficulty evaluating bias because… • Is there a better way to phrase this?

17. Past or Present • Write in the past tense when you speak about what WAS done. Ex. Temperatures were recorded at 10-minute intervals. • Write in the present tense when you’re talking about generalities or current issues. Ex. Increasing temperature generally occurs when this reagent is added.

18. Sentences • Watch sentence length • Try to vary lengths when possible • Build connections by combining sentences. Don’t assume the reader can do this on her/his own.

19. Paragraphs • Break up your text by using paragraphs. • Paragraphs should convey a complete thought. • Generally, paragraphs should begin with a transition sentence that leads into a new thought but links to the previous paragraph.

20. Before You Write • Be completely familiar with problem, possible solutions, methods, analyses and implications • Know your stuff • Know the “story” (plan what you will write) • Where does it begin (problem, possible solution) • What goes on in the middle (try out the solution) • How does it end (did the solution work) • Know who your audience will be

21. Start Writing – Kind of… • Detailed outline to the level of each paragraph • List topic sentences for each paragraph • Topic sentences should summarize an idea and content of paragraph • Include Goal and List of Objectives • Review topic sentences for logical structure • Do the topic sentences follow the story line Reality – Often, this is done after you’ve written But, IT MUST BE DONE!!!

22. Write like you’ve never written before! • Be “clear, simple, concise, and organized” • Rules • 1. Never tell me anything I don’t need to know • 2. Never fail to tell me anything I need to know • To repeat the study • To understand the study/results • 3. Never tell me something more than once (except maybe in discussion for emphasis)

23. Introduction • “Set up” problem • Summarize current knowledge and state any gaps (this is what you will be addressing) • Have an obvious “knock me over the head with it” problem statement (what is needed) • State Goal (general statement) • Should directly address problem statement • State specific objectives • Numbered objectives are always good • Answers/results from objectives should achieve goal

24. Study Area • If research is conducted in a specific geographic area… • Present information about study area in past tense (e.g., temperature, air quality, etc.) • Figure showing study area is always good

25. Methods • Organize in order of objectives • For each objective have an obvious method. “To determine density …” “To estimate survival …” • If the method/analysis is new, describe in detail. • If the method/analysis has been used before, describe briefly and cite those responsible for originally describing • If the method/analysis was done by someone else, explain by whom and why? • 1. Data collection • Who (if subjects), WHY, when, where, how • Do not describe anything that is not used in an analysis

26. Separate “second level” headingData Analysis • State analyses explicitly do not leave anything open to interpretation • Important for repeatability • Again follow order of objectives • Make sure there is an analysis for each objective • Make sure there is not an analysis that is not presented as an objective

27. Results • Can be combined with Analysis section • Arrange according to objectives • These can be very short at times (don’t worry) • Use tables and figures to present information more concisely • Highlight pertinent information from table in text • Reference Tables/Figures correctly (see guidelines) • Do not include extraneous information • Extraneous – not needed for replication or understanding

28. Conclusion/Discussion • Do not repeat information from results section • Use this section to convince me whether you solved the problem (or not!) • Should we do anything else to clarify the problem • Did the results create any new/interesting questions?

29. Literature Cited Check Competition Guidelines!!