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After the consulship of Crassus and Pompey Rome became far more settled both politically and militarily. Both consuls retired into private life and the senate was once again able to take up its primary position within the state.The question still remained as to how they would cope with any future p
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2. After the consulship of Crassus and Pompey Rome became far more settled both politically and militarily. Both consuls retired into private life and the senate was once again able to take up its primary position within the state.
The question still remained as to how they would cope with any future problems. They had placed themselves in a very dangerous position towards the end of the 70’s BC and had narrowly avoided paying a heavy price. Could they avoid doing this again?
The populares, however, had not been extinguished as a political force.
As long as there were enormous benefits to be gained from holding public office and the competition remained as fierce and as one sided as it was there was always going to be number of individuals willing to use the tribunate to get what they wanted.
3. At present we have several well known populares politicians from the 70’s.
Pompey & Crassus
L Aurelius Cotta (the tribune)
C Aurelius Cotta (the consul of 75)
Cn Sicinius (tribune of 76)
Q Opimius (tribune of 75)
L Quinctius (senator and prominent lawyer)
Julius Caesar (little know senator and lawyer)
Within ten years 3 of their number had grouped together to form a political alliance which controlled the state.
How did this happen?
4. The rise of Pompey
5. Interestingly Caesar, who had just returned from being a quaestor in Spain was one of the main supports of the bill (although Caesar had already shown himself to have populares leanings, this is his first move towards Pompey himself) (for the war against the pirates see Scullard pg 97&98).
The following year saw more political intrigue and in-fighting.
Lucullus, who was fighting Mithridates in Asia, had upset the equites by reorganising the financial arrangements in Asia and was being accused of prolonging the war for his own good (interestingly Lucullus while probably an optimates, is being accused of using populares tactics).
A tribune Manilius, in 66 BC then proposed that Pompey, who had defeated the pirates with exceptional speed, should be assigned the command against Mithridates.
6. Caesar again spoke in favour but Cicero also supported the action as one that was in tune with Rome’s traditions pro lege Manilia or De imperio Pompeii).
The bill was passed and Pompey went on to defeat Mithridates over the next three years (Scullard pg 98-103).
What we are seeing here is very different, however, from what we have seen before. Here we have tribunes actively seeking out power for an individual. Pompey’s previous commands had been given to him by a foolish senate.
At this point, even if the senate was more cautious, it is unable to resist the demands of a tribunate backed by a powerful, famous, wealthy and most importantly popular individual.
7. Pompey, however, was not the only one that was forging a career for himself.
Crassus who was Pompey’s consular colleague also needed to continue building upon his political power.
While there was the obvious threat of the political opponents from within the optimate camp there was also the increasing threat from Pompey himself.
Note how Plutarch in his life of Pompey mentions how they didn’t get on during their consulship.
In doing so Crassus needed a group of supporters himself to counter Pompey’s increasing influence and patronage. (Scullard pg 105)
8. Caesar and Crassus Crassus and Caesar were natural political allies if not natural friends.
Caesar had already made a bit of a name for himself in the law courts and by supporting various bits of legislation that were of a populares nature (Scullard pg 95&96).
Crassus on the other hand had the influence and, perhaps more importantly, the wealth to promote his own interests as well as those of others (including Caesar).
With Pompey away (from 67 onwards) Crassus began to involve himself more actively in Roman politics for his own interests.
The problem in Roman politics is that from now on individuals are playing politics for their own interests against those of the state.
9. Gossip and Scandal Crassus’ initial steps were tentative although certainly showed his openly populares character.
Crassus was almost certainly involved in the Catilinarian conspiracy, which began in 65 BC, in with wealth, influence and troops if necessary. Crassus needed to counter balance this.
some shape or form although was certainly in the background to a greater extent than Caesar. (Scullard pg 108-110)
Crassus, however, need more practical bargaining chips if he was to oppose Pompey in the future.
His first step was to gain a wider client base, in particular in the provinces.
If Pompey was successful in the East then he would certainly return with an incredibly wide client base that would provide him
10. Crassus in Spain, Gaul and Egypt
Caesar had already had contact with Spain and Gaul.
He had been quaestor in Spain 68/7 and had proposed that the Transpadane Gauls should receive citizenship the year after.
Spain: Initially Crassus arranged through his patronage to have Calpurnius Piso sent tp Spain as quaestor propraetore.
Unfortunately he was killed soon after his arrival.
Gaul: Crassus, as Censor, then proposed that the transpandane Gauls should once more receive full citizenship.
Opposed by his optimate colleague Catulus the measure was not carried but he would certainly have gained their support (Scullard pg 104).
11. Egypt: At some point around 65/4 BC Crassus then used a tribune who proposed the annexation of Egypt with the supposed intention of sending Caesar out to administer the process.
Egypt would have provided an even better military base against Pompey but would more importantly put Crassus in control of a vast supply of corn with which he could bribe the masses and win over the equites.
The Optimates naturally opposed the measure and Cicero, who was still representing Pompey’s interests, spoke against the measure and was no doubt instrumental in its defeat.
Crassus, despite being thwarted at every step buy the optimates, continued to try and gain more power and influence. This time, however, the steps he takes are more linked to the threat of Pompey than the threat of the optimates
12. Upon Pompey’s return from the East he would need to get land to settle his veterans. This was important if he was to be able to use them as clients in the future.
Crassus knew this and in 64 through the tribune Rullus proposed an agrarian bill which was to set up a commission of ten (a decemviri) to buy up land and establish colonies for a period of 5 years.
The agrarian bill would also be popular with the unemployed people of Rome who no doubt hoped to gain increased access to corn if not the land itself.
Either way Crassus hoped to gain an important political bargaining tool in the event of Pompey’s return.
Once again Cicero spoke against the measure and Rullus withdrew the measure. Crassus had been thwarted again.
13. Caesar was also increasingly active.
As Aedile of 65 he had stage magnificent games (no doubt with the help of Caesar’s money).
He also gained the post of Pontifex Maximus (again almost certainly with the help of Crassus)
Caesar was also active in the law courts prosecuting a number of optimates (although he was defeated by Cicero he would have gained some popular support) (Scullard pg 108).
So far both Crassus and Caesar have formed the bulwark of the populares faction largely on the basis that the optimate faction have opposed their measures.
It is important to remember, however, that this is not an ideological battle but one concerning the control of power.
14. The return of Pompey
With the Catilinarian conspiracy coming to an end Pompey, who was drawing things to a close in the East, began to look after his interests in Rome.
A tribune Nepos, acting for Pompey, proposed that Pompey should be summoned back to tackle Catiline and to be able to stand for the consulship in absentia.
Nepos was opposed by other tribunes and despite rioting in Rome in favour of the bill the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum and the bill was thwarted.
By the end of 62 with Pompey’s return the political situation in Rome was in the balance.
Cicero was hoping that he could draw the factions of Rome together, events were to prove otherwise.
15. Pompey was in a position to take control in Rome in the mode of Sulla but while Rome waited in anticipation Pompey merely disbanded his troops and returned to Rome as a private citizen.
The senate now had a chance to settle the delicate situation in Rome instead they managed to push the populares Pompey, Crassus and Caesar closer together.
Crassus was once again thwarted by the optimates when he proposed that a harsh tax bargain should be redrafted.
Although a fairly bold request it was not completely unreasonable but would certainly have cemented Crassus’ popularity with the equites.
Pompey, at this point, was still essentially on the side of republican government. If not totally committed to the Optimates he was by no means a populares either.
16. Pompey turns populares
Pompey’s position was about to change and the cause can be found with the attitude and actions of the small optimates faction within the senate itself.
Firstly Pompey was rejected by Cato (a prominent optimate) when he suggested that he should marry one of his relations.
One needs to remember that marriages in the upper echelons of Roman society was the standard way of cementing political alliances.
Then his proposed eastern settlement wasn’t ratified by the senate neither did the senate agree to provide land for his veterans.
Essentially his requests weren’t unreasonable but would certainly have consolidated his power if not actually give him anymore.
17. The senate, however, were far too enthusiastic in their attempts to protect their own interests at the expense of Pompey’s.
However, the political climate in Rome and the battle that had been brewing between individuals in Rome (Pompey and Crassus [with Caesar]) meant Pompey was always going to resist their attacks and defend his own interests.
Pompey therefore turned to a tribune Flavius to propose al and bill that would settle his veterans.
Although there was some senatorial opposition the bill was eventually passed but the senate’s opposition had shown Pompey that the senate was not necessarily on his side and had forced him to take populares measures.
Despite Pompey’s turn to the populares the senate continued in the defence of their own vested interests.
18. Caesar was also returning to Rome in the 60BC having been governor in Spain the previous year.
He was due a triumph but also wanted to stand for the consulship of 59 BC but as a commander of an army he wasn’t allowed to enter the city until the day of his triumph.
He consequently asked the senate to be allowed to stand for the consulship in absentia.
This was not unprecedented but considering Caesar’s previous career it is not surprising that the senate declined his request.
Their decision, however, was short-sighted and naturally drove Caesar, Crassus and Pompey closer together to the extent that in 60 BC the three formed a secret amicitia to work for their mutual interests.
19. An Alliance of Vested Interests Together the three had the support of:
The Equites (Crassus)
The urban populace (Caesar and Pompey)
Military backing (Pompey)
As such they could impose their will on the senate as they wished.
To achieve their aims they needed someone with actual political power so Caesar finally got his wish of the consulship and was duly elected to the post of 59BC.
