Physiology of Exercise in the United States—Its Past, Its Future

1. Physiology of Exercise in the United States—Its Past, Its Future

2. Objectives • Name the three Nobel Prize winners whose research work involved muscle or muscular exercise. • Describe the role of the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory in the history of exercise physiology in United States. • Describe factors influencing physical fitness in the United States over the past century.

3. European Heritage Harvard Fatigue Laboratory Physical Fitness Outline • Professional Societies and Research Journals • Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer • Physical Education to Exercise Science • Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise

4. European Heritage European Heritage • Three physiologists received the Nobel Prize for work related to muscle or muscular exercise • A.V. Hill • Heat production during muscle contraction and recovery • Otto Meyerhof • Relationship of O2 consumption and lactic acid in muscle • August Krogh • Function of the capillary circulation

5. European Heritage European Heritage • Other prominent scientists • J.S. Haldane • Role of CO2 in the control of breathing • Developed respiratory gas analyzer • C.G. Douglas • Role of O2 and lactic acid in control of breathing during exercise • Douglas bags • Christian Bohr • O2 binding to hemoglobin • Bohr shift in oxyhemoglobin-dissociation curve

6. European Heritage In Summary • Three physiologists, A.V. Hill, August Krogh, and Otto Meyerhof, received the Nobel Prize for work related to muscle or muscular exercise.

7. Harvard Fatigue Laboratory Harvard Fatigue Laboratory • D.B. Dill • Directed the lab from 1927–1947 • Conducted research in numerous areas • Exercise, clinical, and environmental physiology • Made careful and precise measurements • Using “new” instruments and techniques

8. Harvard Fatigue Laboratory Harvard Fatigue Laboratory • Other distinguished scientists • Steven Horvath • Sid Robinson • E. Asmussen • E.H. Christensen • M. Nielsen • August Krogh • Rudolpho Margaria • Peter F. Scholander

9. Metabolism Maximal oxygen uptake Oxygen debt Carbohydrate and fat metabolism during long-term work Environmental physiology Altitude Dry and moist heat Cold Clinical physiology Gout Schizophrenia Diabetes Aging Basal metabolic rate Maximal oxygen uptake Maximal heart rate Blood Acid-base balance O2 saturation: role of PO2, PCO2, and carbon monoxide Nutrition Nutritional assessment techniques Vitamins Foods Physical fitness Harvard Step Test Harvard Fatigue Laboratory Active Research Areas in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory Table 1.1

10. Harvard Fatigue Laboratory Comparison of Old and New Technology Figure 1.1

11. Harvard Fatigue Laboratory In Summary • The Harvard Fatigue laboratory was a focal point in the development of exercise physiology in the United States. Dr. D.B. Dill directed the laboratory from its opening in 1927 until its closing in 1947. The body of research in exercise and environmental physiology produced in that laboratory forms the basis of much of what we know today.

12. Physical Fitness The Study of Physical Fitness • A popular topic today • Possible careers: • Physical Education • Physiology of Exercise • Health Education • Nutrition • Physical Therapy • Athletic Training • Medicine

13. Physical Fitness Civil War Until the First World War • Physical education primarily concerned with fitness • Many physical education leaders were trained in medicine • Dr. Dudley Sargent • Hired by Harvard in 1879 • Set up physical training programs with individual exercise prescriptions

14. Physical Fitness World War I and World War II • Large numbers of draftees failed the induction exams due to mental and physical defects • Physical programs began to resemble pre-military training programs

15. Physical Fitness In the 1950s • Autopsies of young soldiers from Korean War • Showed significant coronary artery disease had already developed • Hans Kraus • Showed the American children performed poorly on a muscular fitness test compared to Europeans • AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test (1957) • Used in physical education programs nationwide • Established national norms

16. Physical Fitness Efforts of U.S. Presidents • Eisenhower • Established the “President’s Council on Youth Fitness” • Kennedy • Changed to “President’s Council on Physical Fitness” • Nixon • Changed it to the current name, “President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports”

17. Physical Fitness In the 1980s • AAHPERD published the Health-Related Physical Fitness Test Manual • Performance testing • Fitness testing • Public Health Service • Listed “physical fitness and exercise” as one of the fifteen areas of concern related to improving the country’s overall health

18. Physical Fitness Additional Events • Epidemiological studies • Degenerative diseases relate to poor health habits • High-fat diet, smoking, inactivity • An increased use of exercise tests to diagnose heart disease • Large corporations developed “executive” fitness programs • Evolved into today’s “Corporate Fitness” programs

19. Physical Fitness Corporate Fitness Figure 1.2

20. Physical Fitness Corporate Fitness Figure 1.3

21. Physical Fitness In Summary • Fitness has been an issue in this country from the latter part of the nineteenth century until the present. War or the threat of war exerted a strong influence on fitness programs in the public schools. • Recent interest in fitness is related to the growing concern over the high death rates from disease processes that are attributable to preventable factors, such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and smoking. The government and professional organizations have responded to this need by educating the public about these problems.

22. A Closer Look 1.1Physical Activity Recommendations • American Heart Association (1992) • Made physical inactivity a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases • CDC-ACSM recommendation (1995) • “Every U.S. adult should accumulate 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week” • Surgeon General’s Report (1996) • 60% adults do not meet recommendations • 25% not active at all

23. A Closer Look 1.1Physical Activity and Health • Physical activity has been shown to: • Lower the risk of dying prematurely and from heart disease • Reduce the risk of developing diabetes and high blood pressure • Help maintain healthy bones, muscles, and joints • Help lower blood pressure in those with high blood pressure • Promote psychological well-being • Help achieve and maintain a healthy body weight

24. Physical Education to Exercise Science Physical Education to Exercise Science • Reduced need for school-based physical education teachers • Increased need for professionals in preventive and clinical settings • Programs include courses in: • Biomechanics • Physiology of exercise • Fitness assessment • Exercise prescription • Exercise leadership

25. Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise Undergraduate and Graduate Study • Growth in the number of exercise physiology laboratories • Opportunities for graduate and undergraduate education • Graduates from these laboratories contributed to the field • Started new programs • Research productivity • Integrated approach to study • Importance of molecular biology

26. Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise Recent Areas of Investigation in Exercise Physiology

27. Graduate Study and Research in the Physiology of Exercise In Summary • The increase in research in exercise physiology was a catalyst that propelled the transformation on physical education departments into exercise science departments. The number of exercise physiology laboratories increased dramatically between the 1950s and the 1970s, with many dealing with problems requiring specialized training in human physiology. That emphasis has been replaced with a focus on molecular biology as an essential ingredient to solving basic science issues related to physical activity and health.

28. Professional Societies and Research Journals Professional Societies • American Physiological Society (APS) • American Association of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (AAHPER) • American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) • United physicians, physical educators, and physiologists • American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation (AACVPR) • National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA)

29. Professional Societies and Research Journals Research Journals • Growth in research has led to increase in number of journals • Allow scientists to present their work • Many are published by professional societies • Has led to a need for research specialization • To compete for grants and publications

30. Professional Societies and Research Journals In Summary • The growth and development of exercise physiology laboratories in the 1950s and 1960s increased the opportunities for graduate study and research. • Graduates from these laboratories contributed to the increase in the research productivity and the number of research journals and professional societies.

31. Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer • Demand for correct information and qualifications of fitness professionals • Colleges and universities • Developed areas of study in exercise physiology and fitness • Professional organizations • Developed certification programs to establish a standard of knowledge and skill for practitioners

32. Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer A Closer Look 1.2Careers for Undergraduate Exercise Science Majors • Numerous career opportunities • Personal training, strength and conditioning, cardiac rehabilitation, athletic training, massage therapy, allied health professions, and medicine • Requirements: • Coursework • Practicum or internship • Certification exam • Graduate study for some careers

33. Translation of Exercise Physiology to the Consumer In Summary • To meet the needs of the consumer for correct information and programs about physical activity and health, university and college exercise science departments have developed new areas of study in exercise physiology and fitness. • Organizations like the American College of Sports Medicine and the National Strength and Conditioning Association have developed certification programs to establish a standard of knowledge and skill to be achieved by those who lead health-related exercise programs.

34. Study Questions • Identify two of the most prolific scientists in your professional area of interest in exercise physiology and briefly describe what they have done. Use a research database at the library to find your references. • Pick a topic of interest in exercise physiology and describe how a molecular biologist might approach it compared to a scientist interested in doing studies with humans. • Societal factors can have a major impact on career goals. Briefly describe the factors currently influencing one of the following professions: physical educator, physician, physical therapist, athletic trainer, or fitness professional. These might include academic programs, certification and licensure, demographics of the population, and changes in health care in the country.

35. Study Questions • Identify the primary professional organization with which you would like to associate. Find out if the organization has a membership category for students, and what you would receive if you chose to join.