Recap on last lesson: Changes to the family form.

1. Part A – The Nuclear to the Unclear family. When did the nuclear family emerge/become the dominant family form? What is the Conflict perspective as to why this happened? *What is the Feminist perspective as to why this happened? Why is the ‘Family Law Act 1975’ relevant to the change to the nuclear family form? What statistical trends are we seeing in regard to marriage, divorce and birth rates? Part B – Pure relationship. Write down your definition of a ‘pure relationship’. Which theorist coined this term? How does this idea of a ‘pure relationship’ link to your grandparents/parents/30 year old friend/you experience? Read ‘Intimate relationships’ – What does it add to your knowledge? Zygmunt Bauman explains how individualisation leads to uncertainty (e.g. sweet dream vs. nightmare) What do you think this means? Two dot point on Bauman’s ‘liquid love’. Recap on last lesson: Changes to the family form.

2. So…what would a Functionalist think about the changing family form? We must preserve the nuclear family! Waaaaaa! Traditional gender roles are important to maintain stability in society! Waaaa

3. Selfish? • Career • Travelling • Pursuing interests • Changing role of women SBS Insight ‘Child free’(2015) ‘Single serve’

4. (2015) Crabb’s book raises the important question: Have gender roles in the family really changed? Of Australian couple families with children under the age of fifteen, 60 per cent have a father who works full-time, and a mother who works either part-time or not at all (ABS, 2011). How many families have a mum who works full-time and a dad who is at home or works part-time? Three per cent (ABS, 2011). Changes in family are very much linked to changes in the institution of work…

5. (2015) “This is free-and-easy, egalitarian Australia’s intriguing little secret; our attachment to the male-breadwinner model is deep and robust.” (Crabb, 2015, p. 8) Even when mothers work full-time, they still do more than twice as much household work as their full-time working husbands: 41 hours a week compared to 20 (ABS, 2009)

6. According to Baxter (2013) men are actually working more; 86 per cent of fathers were in the workforce in 2001, compared with 90 per cent in 2011. Further, the proportion of fathers NOT working has actually decreased (Baxter, 2013) “Oh, but things are changing.”

7. Changes to work in Australia. Werk, werk, werk, werk,werk! Institutions: Power and Politics

8. Industrial society to a knowledge society Historical background

9. Primary sector: Industries within this sector produce raw materials like what, wool and meat and make sure of natural resources such as minerals and forests. Primary industry was the leading sector in Australian industry. People used to say that Australia’s economy was ‘riding on the sheep’s back’ (ACTU, 2015) Sectors of work Today: Natural resources are no longer viewed as limitless. There is also a trend to lower employment in farming, and more jobs in mining. However, recent statistics from the ABS (2015) show that the mining construction boom is past its peak, which means mining employment rates have and will reduce. Photo taken: 1937

10. Secondary sector: This is the manufacturing industry, where basic materials are turned into sale-able products, such as the production of clothing from cotton or wool or the manufacture of electronics or machines. In the past, secondary industry played a powerful economic role, fuelled by ways of migration in the 1950s and 1960s. A quarter of the workforce were employed in manufacturing in the 1960s (ACTU, 2015) Sectors of work Today: This industry has become less dominant, with under 10 per cent of the Australian workforce employed in this industry, and this is partly due to increased overseas competition and trade (Borland, 2014) Scale economies are particularly difficult for local firms, but niche strategies are being utilised. Photo taken: 1960s (the zenith of Australian manufacturing)

11. Tertiary sector: This area is concerned with the provision of services. It includes such areas as banking and transport, as well as the direct marketing or selling of products. In the past the tertiary industry serviced the needs of the secondary and primary industries (ACTU, 2015) Sectors of work Today: This industry has seen significant growth in regard to information-based services, hospitality, tourism and personal services. ‘Post-industrial economy’ (Bell, 1976) is the term used to describe the expansion of service industries as the major area of economic activity and employment.

12. Quaternary sector: The quaternary sector is sometimes included within the tertiary sector, as they are both service industries. The quaternary sector specifically consists of those industries providing information services, such as computing, ICT, consultancy (offering advice to businesses) education and training, and research (research, particularly related to scientific fields) Sectors of work Today: The boom of this sector of work in contemporary Australian society (currently represents 47% of GDP) is directly related to Bell’s post-industrial society, the widespread use of the internet and the rise of the ‘technocrats’; people who exercise authority through technical knowledge. This technical knowledge may be in relation to new technologies, for example app design, or it might be in relation to science, such as biomedical researchers.

13. “Three-quarters of the nation’s businesses believe a national broadband infrastructure will increase their ability to engage in the digital economy, according to a recent Nielsen report.” (Ruthven, 2012)

14. Women’s participation in the paid workforce

15. Women’s participation in the paid workforce Women and Workforce ParticipationFemale participation in the workforce has increased steadily over recent decades, growing from around 44 per cent in 1978 to 58 per cent of the female population aged 15 years and over in 2008. Since then, female participation has remained steady at just under 6 in every 10 women. Women now account for approximately 46 per cent of the total workforce, up from about 36 per cent in 1978 (Chart 1, ABS, 2013)

16. Women’s participation in the paid workforce

17. Women’s participation in the paid workforce Participation relative to age: The growth in female workforce participation has been driven by increasing participation across most age groups; although in the younger age groups it has always been quite high. Most notably, the ‘dip’ in workforce participation that was typically seen for the 25-34 year age group (referred to by the ABS as the ‘nappy valley’) has all but disappeared for recent cohorts (Chart 2).

18. Changes to type of occupations carried out by women. Women’s participation in the paid workforce The biggest growth industry for women was that of "Social Assistance Services", which includes child-care work, followed by "Professional, Scientific and Technical Services", which includes jobs such as lawyers and accountants. The third biggest growth occupation was "Medical and other Health Care Services" - reflective of our ageing population. Also showing a significant increase was "Food and Beverage Services" - indicative of the growing service economy.

19. Women’s participation in the paid workforce Changes to type of occupations carried out by women. The story of the women's labour market in the past 25-30 years is very much the story of Australia's economy. The shift also recognises that "women's jobs" are also changing, with women now occupying over a third of all manager positions (not to be confused with CEO positions), and growth areas in occupations requiring high skills and advanced education.

20. Women’s participation in the paid workforce Before the 1980s boys had more favourable outcomes than girls from Australia's educational institutions. They enjoyed superior Year 12 results and greater participation in, and graduation from, post-compulsory education.

21. Women’s participation in the paid workforce It was not until 1999 that all Australian workers had access to personal carer's leave, maternity/paternity/adoption leave and equal pay. Before 1966, married women could not work in the Commonwealth public service. Fewer women returned to work after having children. This information was sourced from the ABS (2012)

22. Women’s participation in the paid workforce Changing social attitudes, the availability of safe contraception and planned parenting, as well as adequate child care facilities have all helped to allow women to continue their careers. The growth in availability of part-time work has helped too. This information was sourced from the ABS (2012)

23. Women’s participation in the paid workforce Changes to legislation include the national Paid Parental Leave scheme, introduced in January 2011 and the Fair Work Act, 2009 (Cwlth), which effectively gives parents and other people caring for young children the right to make formal requests for flexible work arrangements. This information was sourced from the ABS (2012)

24. “The last five decades might feel as though they have brought about a gender revolution, but the most revolutionary aspects have been contained largely to one side of the ledger; women taking on more paid work. To a great extent, women have maintained their unpaid jobs at home too, and men have not filled the breach.” (Crabb, 2015 citing Baxter’s findings, 2013) Women’s participation in the paid workforce Baxter Crabb

25. Definitions: • ABS Labour Market Statistics (2013) part- time work less than 35 hours per week. Those who work 35 hours or more per week are defined as employed full-time. • Casual employment: • Employees without leave entitlements; • Employees who receive a casual loading; and • Employees who consider their job to be casual (self-perception). • An employee with paid leave entitlements has access to either paid holiday leave or paid sick leave, or both. Increases in part time and casual work What might are the possible benefits/disadvantages of casual employment?

26. There has been a steady increase in proportion of casual workers in the Australian workforce between 1992 (21 per cent) and 2004 (25.7 per cent), and a slight decrease in years following (November, 2013: 23.9 per cent). Casual work is more pervasive than it was in the past. However, the dramatic increase in casual workers (‘casualisation’) actually occurred PRIOR to the late 1990s. Between 1984 and 1998, was the most dramatic increase in the proportion of casual workers in the Australian workforce. Increases in part time and casual work

27. The nature of casual work has changed – people now tend to stay in casual positions for much longer (1-5 years rather than a few months) . Increases in part time and casual work Casuals may be kept on over long periods and constitute an integral part of workforce structures, but it does not mean that this is a satisfactory arrangement for workers themselves. They may not be in much danger of losing their jobs as they might have in the past at the end of a busy period when they were simply laid off. But they are still used instrumentally and strategically by employers in ways that permanent employees are not. 

28. Portrait of a casual worker The dynamic of how casual work can masquerade as employment stability is illustrated by Patricia who had been working for eighteen months prior to interview as a wards clerk in a hospital in an outer suburb of Melbourne. (for full story see http://theconversation.com/labour-in-vain-casualisation-presents-a-precarious-future-for-workers-8181)

29. Underemployment: Those employed people whose labour is not fully utilised(ABS, 2013). In other words, those employed people who are working less than they want to/are able to/could work. The increased prominence of casuals across diverse industries may help to explain the very high rates of underemployment in the current labour market. As of February 2012, over 900,000 Australian workers had insufficient work (531,500 women and 384,800 men) comprising around 8% of the workforce (in addition to an unemployment rate of around 5%) (Sheen – The Conversation, 2012) Increases in part time and casual work Hey Sara Hi Malcolm, Can you please let me know my shifts for this week? Yes. You have one shift on Wednesday. 10am-1pm. Oh. I am available Monday-Saturday though. Yeah. That’s the only shifts we can give you this week :S Ok. Soz. Do u like pizza?

30. Employment insecurity now pervades many workplaces and industry sectors especially in the service sector but also in areas such as manufacturing and warehousing. • The ACTU (2015) estimates that around 40% of jobs are insecure mainly as casual and fixed term contract. So workers make accommodations to the reality of what they can get to earn a basic living but that doesn’t mean it is an easy or desirable set of choices. Increases in part-time and casual work

31. Today, Australians are more highly educated than ever before. Qualifications in computer programming, ICT and other technologies are increasingly valuable. Demands for high levels of qualification Education matters. Of Australians with a tertiary or higher education, 83 per cent have a paid job, compared with 59 per cent of those without an upper secondary education.(OECD, 2015) Education plays an increasingly critical role in preparing individuals for entry into the labour force, and ensuring they have the skills necessary for employment and life-long learning. The changing structure of the labour market, as well as the fast pace of technological change in an increasingly global economy, requires a workforce capable of development throughout their life. (ABS, 2012)

32. Demands for high levels of qualification Over recent decades there has been an increasing demand for vocational and higher education qualifications across many sectors of the labour market. This has resulted in a steady increase in the proportion of the working-age population with these qualifications. However, while the proportion of Australian workers with qualifications has increased, there is concern that many of these workers are employed in a field of work that has little relevance to their qualifications. (ABS, 2012) Over recent years, the proportion of Australians who have gained a qualification has been steadily increasing. Between 2001 and 2011, the proportion of all Australians aged 15-64 years with a qualification ranging from a Certificate I to a Postgraduate degree, increased from 47% to 57%. Increasing levels of education reflect the broad structural changes in Australia’s labour market in recent decades, including increases in service industries, which often require qualifications for employment, and concurrent reductions in the manufacturing industry, which may not require qualifications for employment. (DEEWR, 2012)

33. 1. Do you currently have a paid job? If yes, what is your job status (e.g. casual), how many hours do you work per week? If no, when do you plan to get your first job and where might you work? 2. [Skip this question if you are not currently in the workforce] Describe your experience of being a “casual” worker: 3. Using a timeline, describe what your job future might look like. Make sure you label this timeline. 4. Compare this timeline with the job history of one of your parents. Do the same with one of your grandparents. 5. What level of education/type of qualification(s) might you need to get the job you might have at 30 years of age? 6. If you have a baby, what is a reasonable amount of time to have off work? Explain your answer. Questions about your own experience of work

34. Family The nuclear family has certainly lost some of its dominance in contemporary Australian society. However, what does Annabel Crabb argue about the role of the male-breadwinner in today’s society? Have men started to spend more or less hours at work in recent years? What were some of the reasons men and women, on the program Insight, gave for deciding to be ‘child-free’? Work List the four main sectors of work (provide one sentence description of each). Describe what is happening in terms of shifts in the sectors. How has women’s participation in the workforce changed? What are some reasons for the above changes? What makes a worker “casual”? Has there been an increase in the proportion of casual and part-time workers? How might casual work disadvantage some people? How has demand for qualifications changed in recent years? Recap questions

35. What has caused these changes to occur to the institution of work in Australian society?

36. Industrialisation Agrarian society Industrial society The process of industrialisation has changed the institution of work. In 1973, Daniel Bell wrote the book ‘The Coming of Post-Industrial Society’. Bell explained that society had transitioned into a post-industrial period; this period differs from industrial society as the production of consumer goods is now surpassed by the growth of ‘knowledge’. During this phase of our society, Bell argues that universities are key drivers of innovation and social change; that technology has lead to the rise of the service industries and a demand for “technocrats” and highly skilled workers. Post-industrial society

37. Automation and technology • Automation: the use or introduction of automatic equipment in a manufacturing or other process or facility. • More machines = less people • Unemployment (concerns for lower class/educated workers) • Autonomous vehicles (Bradlow, 2015) • Digitisation (health and education) • There are 10 billion devices worldwide (Bradlow, 2015) • Bradlow (2015) argues that technologies make the workforce more inclusive and allows for the emergence of non-traditional occupations. • Peer-to-peer economy (also known as the sharing economy)

39. Globalisation

40. Theoretical perspective: Functionalist

41. Theoretical perspective: Conflict theory

42. Theoretical perspective: Feminist

43. Theoretical perspective: Interactionist

44. https://aifs.gov.au/publications/parents-working-out-work Baxter 2013 • http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2013/March/Women_in_the_Australian_workforce_A_2013_update • http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/1301.0Main+Features452012 • http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2014/s4101883.htm (ACTU job insecurity) • http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/australia/ • http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features30Sep+2012 References