ENGINES, REFRIGERATORS, AND HEAT PUMPS

1. ENGINES, REFRIGERATORS, AND HEAT PUMPS This lecture highlights aspects in Chapters 9,10,11 of Cengel and Boles. Every thermodynamic device has moving parts. To understand these movements, it is important that you watch some videos on the Internet. I will go through these slides in two 90-minutes lectures. Zhigang Suo, Harvard University

2. How humans tell each other something? • The thing itself • Pictures • Words • Equations • Language • Books • Movies • The Internet

3. Thermodynamics =heat + motionToo many devices to classify neatly • Fuel (input):biomass, fossil, solar thermal, geothermal, nuclear, electricity. • Application (output): mobile power plant (transpiration in air, land, sea), stationary power plant (electricity generation), refrigerator, heat pump. Power cycle, refrigeration cycle. • Working fluid: Gas cycle (air), vapor cycle (steam, phase change). • Fluid-solid coupling: piston engine (reciprocating, crankshaft), turbine engine (jet, compressor). • Site of burning: external combustion, internal combustion.

4. Plan • Internal combustion engines • Gas turbines • Stirling and Ericsson engines • Vapor power cycle • Refrigeration cycle • Thermodynamics in a nutshell

5. Combustion engine burns to move BOILER STEAM WATER Fayette Internal Combustion Engiine I COMBUSTION CHAMBER PISTON PISTON External combustion engine Internal combustion engine (ICE) • Steam engine • Stirling engine • Ericsson engine • Otto (gasoline) engine • Diesel engine • Gas turbine • Jet propulsion US Navy Training Manual, Basic Machines

6. Reciprocating engine also known as piston engine, converts linear motion to rotation CYLINDER PISTON CONNECTING ROD CRANKSHAFT US Navy Training Manual, Basic Machines

7. both valves closed fuel-air mixture entering cylinder air entering fuel-air mixture being compressed exhaust valve closed Fuel discharging from nozzle intake valve open piston moving up piston moving down valve tappet lifting valve cam lobe lifting valve tappet 1 cycle 4 strokes 2 revolutions INTAKE STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE spark igniting mixture both valves closed exhaust valve open intake valve closed Animated engines http://www.animatedengines.com/ piston moving up piston moving down valve tappet lifting valve cam lobe lifting valve tappet US Navy Training Manual, Basic Machines POWER STROKE EXHAUST STROKE

8. Spark-ignition engine (gasoline engine, petrol engine, Otto engine)

9. Air-standard assumptions • Model the engine as a closed system, and the working fluid as air (an ideal gas). • The cycle is internally reversible. • Model combustion by addingheat from an external source • Model exhaust by rejecting heat to an external sink

10. Cold air-standard assumption Model air as an ideal gas of constant specific heat at room temperature(25°C). 2 independent variables to name all states of thermodynamic equilibrium 6 functions of state: PTvush 4 equations of state Gibbs equation

11. Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle Compression ratio: Conservation of energy: Isentropic processes: Thermal efficiency: wout win

12. Otto cycle represented in planes of different variables s 3 4 qin qout 2 1 v

13. Reciprocating engines of two types Spark-ignition engine (Otto, 1876) Compression-ignition engine (Diesel, 1892) https://ccrc.kaust.edu.sa/pages/HCCI.aspx

14. Compression-ignition engine (Diesel engine) compression ratio: cut-off ratio: Conservation of energy: Isentropic processes Thermal efficiency:

15. Plan • Internal combustion engines • Gas turbines • Stirling and Ericsson engines • Vapor power cycle • Refrigeration • Thermodynamics in a nutshell

16. Gas turbine (Brayton cycle) 4 steady-flow components: isobaric and isentropic P qin 3 2 1 4 qout s

17. Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle Definition of pressure ratio: Conservation of energy: Isentropic processes: Thermal efficiency:

18. Brayton cycle has large back work ratio wout win

19. Intercooling, reheating, regeneration

20. Gas turbine for jet propulsionThousands of years of history Who invented this? Hero of Alexandria Frank Whittle (UK), Hans von Ohain (Germany) (first century AD) (during World War II) http://www.techknow.org.uk/wiki/index.php?title=File:Hero_4.jpg

21. Gas turbine for jet propulsion 6 steady-flow components Propulsive force: Propulsive power: Propulsive efficiency:

22. http://www.ae.utexas.edu/~plv955/class/propulsion/Cp_air.GIF

23. Air as an ideal gas of variablespecific heat See section 7.9 for the use of this table

24. Plan • Internal combustion engines • Gas turbines • Stirling and Ericsson engines • Vapor power cycle • Refrigeration cycle • Thermodynamics in a nutshell

25. Displacer-type Stirling engine https://www.stirlingengine.com/faq/

26. Stirling engine and regenerator (1816) reversible cycle between two fixed temperatures, having the Carnot efficiency https://people.ok.ubc.ca/jbobowsk/Stirling/how.html

27. Stirling vs. Carnotfor given limits of volume, pressure, and temperature • On PV plane, the black area represents the Carnot cycle, and shaded areas represent addition work done by the Stirling cycle. • On TS plane, the black area represents the Carnot cycle, and the shaded areas represent additional heat taken in by the Stirling cycle. • The Stirling cycle and the Carnot cycle have the same thermal efficiency. • The Stirling cycle take in more heat and give more work than the Carnot cycle. Walker, Stirling Engine, 1980.

28. Work out by Stirling cycle Specific work Specific gas constant

29. Ericsson engine with regenerator (1853) reversible cycle between two fixed temperatures, having the Carnot efficiency

30. Plan • Internal combustion engines • Gas turbines • Stirling and Ericsson engines • Vapor power cycle • Refrigeration cycle • Thermodynamics in a nutshell

31. Coal power stationcoverts coal to electricity

32. Brayton Point Power StationSommerset, Massachusetts Mount Hope Bay http://www.clf.org/blog/clean-energy-climate-change/brayton-point-retirement-means-game-coal-new-england/

33. Nuclear power stationconverts uranium to electricity Animation https://www.awesomestories.com/images/user/be4285df4b.gif http://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-power-plant/

34. Nine Mile Point Nuclear Power Plant, New York Lake Ontario Cooling tower

35. Why water? Why steam? • Water is cheap. • Water flows! • Water is a liquid at the temperature of heat sink (rivers, lakes,...). • Vaporization changes specific volume greatly: a lot of work at relatively low pressure. https://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo

36. Rankine cycle 4 steady-flow components: isobaric and isentropic wpump,in = h2 - h1 qboiler,in = h3 - h2 wturbine,out = h3 – h4 qcondenser,out = h4 – h1 P qboiler,in 2 3 wturbine,out wpumo,in 1 4 qcondenser, out s

37. Rankin cycle has small back work ratio

38. Brayton cycle Gas cycle Gas turbine Large back-work ratio Rankin cycle Vapor cycle Steam turbine Small back-work ratio

39. Carnot cycle is unsuitable as vapor power cycle Issues with the in-dome Carnot cycle Process 1-2 limits the maximum temperature below the critical point (374°C for water) Process 2-3. The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear. Process 4-1. It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases. Issues with supercritical Carnot cycle Process 1-2 requires isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures. Process 4-1 requires isentropic compression to extremely high pressures.

40. Cogeneration

41. Plan • Internal combustion engines • Gas turbines • Stirling and Ericsson engines • Vapor power cycle • Refrigeration cycle • Thermodynamics in a nutshell

42. Refrigerator and heat pump 4 steady-flow components animation

43. Selecting Refrigerant • Large enthalpy of vaporization • Sufficiently low freezing temperature • Sufficiently high critical temperature • Low condensing pressure • Do no harm: non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-flammable, environmentally-friendly • Low cost • R-717 (Ammonia, NH3) used in industrial and heavy-commercial sectors. Toxic. • R-12 (Freon 12, CCl2F2). Damage ozone layer. Banned. • R-134a (HFC 134a, CH2FCF3) used in domestic refrigerators, as well as automotive air conditioners.

46. Plan • Internal combustion engines • Gas turbines • Stirling and Ericsson engines • Vapor power cycle • Refrigeration cycle • Thermodynamics in a nutshell

47. Brayton cycle Jet propulsion, power station Internal combustion Gas cycle Gas turbine Compressor Large back-work ratio Rankin cycle Power station External Combustion Vapor cycle Steam turbine Pump Small back-work ratio Refrigeration cycle Refrigerator, heat pump Electricity Vapor cycle No turbine Vapor compressor No back work wout win

48. https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/

49. Pure substance T liquid gas P = 0.1 MPa s 2 independent variables to name all states of thermodynamic equilibrium 6 functions of state: PTvush 4 equations of state weights Incompressible liquid liquid-gas mixture ideal gas vapor liquid fire

50. Concepts and definitions Isolated system Quantum states of an isolated system Fundamental postulate States of thermodynamic equilibrium Functions of state Phases Number of quantum states of an isolated system: Entropy of an isolated system: Isolated system generates entropy. Irreversibility Isolated system conserves energy and volume: Model a closed system as a family of isolated systems: Definition of temperature (Gibbs equation 1): Definition of pressure (Gibbs equation 2): Definition of enthalpy: Definition of Helmholtz function (free energy): Definition of Gibbs function: Definition of heat capacities: