class 8 11/03/08 interpretive methods

1. class 8 11/03/08 interpretive methods

2. research is • “the discovery that it is worthwhile rechecking [what is known] by new direct experience, and not necessarily trusting the experience from the past.” (p. 185) • “You must doubt the experts. . . . Science is the belief in the ignorance of experts” (p. 187). Richard Feynman (1999). The pleasure of finding things out. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.

3. all researchers must attend to • theory • moving beyond description to explanation • endogeneity • the values that explanatory (independent) variables take on are sometimes a consequence, rather than a cause, of the dependent variable • unit of analysis • level and target of observation • related to observation-n challenge

4. historical & philosophical research

5. Kaestle: recent developments . . . • history both science and art • generalization remains an act of creative interpretation involving the historian’s values, interests, and training • no single, definable method of inquiry

6. assumptions underlying traditional framework (in U.S.?) • history of education concerned almost exclusively with the history of public school systems • state regulated, free, tax supported, universal schooling a good thing

7. traditional framework (corollaries) 1. education = schooling • enlightenment of earlier societies equated with how much formal schooling • importance of family, workplace, churches etc. underestimated 2. those in favor of public schooling enlighten leaders; people opposed to school reform ignorant etc (value bias)

8. 3. growth = progress 4. focus on leadership and organization rather than educational behavior and attitudes of ordinary people • the great majority of books and dissertations written before 1950 based on this paradigm—the progressive and beneficial evolution of the public schools

9. two strands of revision 1. broadened focus of education history looking at agencies of instruction other than schools (e.g., Bailyn, Cremin) • societies educate in many ways, but the state educates through schools 2. emphasis on the exploitative nature of capitalism and how schools relate to it and on the culturally abusive nature of mainstream values asserted by schools

10. quantitative methods • reaction to naïve use of numerical data and a focus on the leaders rather than the clients • made possible by computer programs and availability of microfilmed sources • virtue: puts reader in touch with realities of schools in the past

11. quantitative methods: challenges • statistics and computers alien to many historians • historians slow to pick up appropriate techniques • data crude and incomplete • small samples, often leading to questionable aggregation • data biased, defined differently in different periods

12. theory and history • explanations come not only from evidence, but from theory • most historians use theory incidentally and selectively • historians should be aware of major theories in related disciplines and their possible relevance for historical methodology

13. methodological concerns 1. confusion of correlations and causes 2. defining key terms - vagueness, e.g., industrialization, reform - presentism: assuming terms had present-day meanings in the past, e.g., public 3. distinguishing between how people should act and how in fact they did act 4. distinguishing intent and consequences

14. historians have always been scavengers, raiding other disciplines for new techniques and insights. • no single methodology—complex and all-encompassing • educational historians have moved out—history of family, childhood, reform institutions etc. • the reader of educational history need be critically alert and independent

15. Michael Scriven: Philosophical Inquiry Methods in Education • educators concerned with imparting knowledge; philosophers with the concept of knowledge itself • the philosopher analyzes many of the complex concepts that educational researchers study • educational researchers need to have in their repertoire well developed skills in conceptual analysis

16. “the same factors that lead to the preparation of conceptually incompetent researchers explain the rash tendency of researchers to rush into building a lifetime of research on a foundation of conceptual sand” (p. 136). • two false doctrines: • correct way to define terms is so called “operational definitions” • definitional irresponsibility

17. see discussion of IQ tests on page 141 • “For the only issue is whether fewer children are penalized when the IQ test is used than when it is not used.” (p. 141)

18. “most conceptual analysis in educational research has to be done by analyzing and not by replacing the complex concepts” (p. 144) • method of examples and contrasts • analogies and evocative language • making most plausible generalizations—seeing loopholes and counter-examples in those generalizations

19. terms from Vogt • systematic sample • theory • time series • trait • transformation • triangulation • unit of analysis • validity • weighted average • X and Y axes

20. grad life other frees and good deals • Music Friday and Saturday evenings at Pages for All Ages and Borders • Go Illini Card: admission to all varsity sports except football and men’s basketball for your entire family ($50)

21. some more bests • Mexican: Dos Reales • Asian: Peking Garden • burgers: Farren’s Pub & Eatery • pizza: Papa Del’s • bar food: Esquire Lounge • subs: Jimmy John’s • breakfast: Le Peep • dessert: Timpone’s • upscale dining: Radio Maria

22. this week

23. Tony Hillerman 1925-2008

24. Studs Terkel 1912-2008

25. Becker ch 4: editing by ear • importance of heuristic rules, i.e., general “rules of thumb” about writing • the unwritten rules of an area, i.e., knowledgeable people in an area know what “works” or “swings” etc • find good writers and listen to what they say (Koko Taylor/Willie Dixon story)

26. read outside you field—to avoid developing a stilted “academic” ear; read good writers. some limited suggestions • Atlantic • Sports Illustrated • New Yorker • John McPhee • Tony Hillerman • James Kilpatrick (political columnist)

27. read carefully pp. 72-79 to get sense of the process of careful, detailed editing. . . . having rewritten a sentence, I then rewrite it again, and even a third or fourth time. Why don’t I get it right the first time? I say [to students], and try to show them, that each change opens the way to other changes, that when you clear away nonworking words and phrases, you can see more easily what the sentence is about and can phrase it more succinctly and accurately. ( p. 78).

28. some hints from Becker • use active voice (and action verbs); avoid the passive voice—”Active verbs almost always force you to name the person who did whatever was done . . .” (p. 79). • use fewer words. “An unnecessary word does no work” (p. 81). “I seldom take unnecessary words out of early drafts . . .” (p. 81).

29. don’t repeat words when you can get the same result without doing it. • syntax, way we arrange sentence’s elements, indicates relations between them. • use the concrete—as opposed to the abstract—whenever possible • use metaphors only if they are still alive; avoid old tired metaphors. “Reading [a living metaphor] shows you a new aspect of what you are reading about . . .” (p. 86).

30. Writers need to pay close attention to what they have written as they revise, looking at every word as if they meant it to be taken seriously. You can write first drafts quickly and carelessly exactly because you know you will be critical later. When you pay close attention the problems start taking care of themselves. (p. 89)

31. do not use commas • before an essential or restrictive clause • The team that won moved on to the next round. • between 2 parts of a compound predicate • She left the building and drove home

32. semicolon (80) • to separate two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction • The first group did well; the second did not. • to separate elements in a series that already contain commas • The groups were Kevin, Yonghee, and Marcella; Fred, Taro, and Chryso;….

33. colon (80-81) • between a grammatically complete intro clause and a final clause that illustrates, extends, or amplifies the first. If second clause a complete sentence, capitalize • Kelly presented two findings: Teachers preferred…. • in ratios and proportions • the ratio was 3:1 • between city and publisher—Boston: Smith.

34. do not use a colon • after intro that is not a complete sentence • The students were Ben, Akiko, Mustaf. . . . miscellania • in American English, the word research is not countable—thus much research, or many research studies not many researches.

35. Sieber ch 7: deception research 7.1 why is deception used in research • to achieve stimulus control or random assignment • to study responses to low-frequency events • to obtain valid observations without serious risk to subjects • to obtain information otherwise not obtainable because of defensiveness, embarrassment, shame or fear of reprisal

36. deception research should not involve people in ways that members of the subject population would find unacceptable 7.2 alternatives to deception • simulation • ethnographic or participant observation • obtain consent for concealment

37. 7.3 consent to conceal vs deception acceptable (all with full debriefing) • informed consent to participate in one of various conditions • consent to deception • consent to waive the right to be informed unacceptable • consent and false informing • no informing and no consent

38. 7.4 minimizing wrong and harm • some important forms of behavior vanish under scrutiny, thus concealment or deception sometimes necessary • the more objectionable forms of deception are unnecessary 7.5 dehoaxing • revealing the deception • double deception particularly harmful

39. 7.6 desensitizing • restore people to frame of mind as positive and constructive as it was when they entered study 7.7 when not to dehoax

40. Sieber ch 8: Recognizing Risk • possibility that harm, frustration, loss, or damage may occur • mere inconvenience • physical risk • psychological risk • social risk • economic risk • legal risk

41. figure 8.1: know how to read and to be able to discuss risk in any of the cells, e.g., bB2. 8.3 stages of research • theory, question, or research idea • research process • institutional setting • use of research findings

42. 8.4 risk related factors • privacy and confidentiality • personal safety and well being • lack of validity • deception and debriefing • informed consent, respectful communication • justice and equitable treatment • ownership of data and knowledge • gatekeepers and opinion leaders

43. 8.5 persons or institutions that may be vulnerable • visible, famous, deep pockets, lacking public sympathy • lacking resources or autonomy • stigmatized individuals • weakened position, perhaps institutionalized • unable to speak for themselves • engaged in illegal activities • associated with those studied

44. 8.6 researchers’ perception of risk • IRBs look for evidence researcher • aware of possible risks and has reduced them • consults with those who can help them understand and reduce risk • aware of their own prejudices and alternative points of view • aware of assumptions and limitations of findings • aware of how findings might be translated in media and elsewhere