CHAPTER 2: Cultural Identity Development

1. CHAPTER 2:Cultural Identity Development Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach Second Edition Danica G. Hays and Bradley T. Erford

2. Culture defined – a set of “values, beliefs, expectations, worldviews, symbols, & appropriate behaviors of a group that provide its members with norms, plans, & rules for social living” (Gladding, 2001, p. 34) Cultural identity defined – developed within the context of formal & informal connections that leads to values, beliefs, expectations, worldviews, symbols, behaviors, & acceptance of those in personally meaningful ways Some of the most significant markers of cultural identity are nonverbal Culture

3. Race defined – a powerful political & socioeconomic construct correlated with artificial categorical differences in physical appearance Can impact an individual’s psychological functioning (i.e., identity development process) Understanding the complexity of race allows counselors to more appropriately and fully address clients’ concerns Racial identity development defined – dynamic, multi-staged process, characterized by periods of momentary integration as racial experiences are processed and interpreted within a personal context Race and Racial Identity Development

4. Ethnicity defined – “group classification in which members believe they share a common origin & a unique social & cultural heritage” (Gladding, 2001, p. 45) Ethnic identity development defined – a complex process in which individuals negotiate the degree that particular ethnicities belong to them; influenced by external evaluation Orthogonal cultural identity recognizes the multiplicity of coexisting identities in individuals Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity Development

5. Enculturation defined – socialization process through which individuals learn & acquire the cultural & psychological qualities of their own group Takes place through interactions with parents/caretakers, peers, or from other adults, & culturally-based institutions or affiliations. Acculturation defined – changes in behavior, cognitions, values, language, cultural activities, personal relational styles, & beliefs as a cultural minority group comes in continuous contact with the dominant culture Enculturation & Acculturation

6. Cultural Identity development defined – process of making one’s cultural group membership salient Models begin with low salience and move to higher levels of involvement with culture Some refer to identity development statuses rather than stages Often development spiral rather than moving in linear paths Cultural Identity Development

7. Serve as a framework for most other models of cultural identity General Principles: Identify patterns of responses likely to be exhibited as people respond to each other and their own development Assume that all races negotiate their racial identities through social interactions within and outside their racial group Categorized patterns of responses are ego statuses that mark processing strategies for racial information Research suggests that gender & age might influence racial identity status Racial & Ethnic Identity Development Models

8. Pre-encounter: preexisting identity or an identity to be changed Encounter: induces identity change Immersion-Emersion: Individuals immerse themselves in the symbols & signs of black culture & emerge with a more sophisticated understanding of black identity Internalization: self-acceptance & pro-active black pride infused in everyday life while appreciating other dimensions of diversity Internalization-Commitment: integration of personal sense of black identity into a way of being or long lasting commitment to black community and issues Cross’ Nigrescence Model

9. Conformity: acceptance of racial characteristics & external self-definition; may feel uncomfortable around people of color Dissonance: confusion about one’s connection to groups of people of color & Whites Immersion/Emersion: idealize own racial group while devaluing what is perceived to be White & resisting oppressive external forces Internalization: capacity to use internal criteria for self-definition & the ability to objectively respond to Whites Integrative Awareness: valuing of one’s collective identities & the recognition & appreciation of the similarities between oppressed people Helms’ People of Color Identity Model

10. Contact: acceptance of socially imposed racial categorizations & rules Disintegration: confusion about commitment to own group; movement between feelings of comfort & discomfort about race Reintegration: idealization of own group; external standards used to define self & others; lack of empathy for others Pseudo-Independence: rationalize commitment to own group & tolerance of others Immersion/Emersion: challenges Whites to understand how they have benefited & contributed to racism; requires questioning, self-reflection, & critical analysis Autonomy: internally derived definitions of self, demonstrate positive racial group commitment, & possess the capacity to relinquish racial privilege Helms’ White Racial Identity Model

11. Interaction effects of expressed racial identity development strata between counselor & client and the effects on therapeutic change. Parallel interactions Regressive interactions Progressive interactions Helms’ Racial Interaction Theory

12. Used specifically with White counselor trainees Pre-exposure: unfamiliar with multicultural issues, comfortable with status quo Exposure: gain awareness of racism & other issues of diversity, initiated by coursework Zealot-Defensive: may become pro-minority & anti-White Integration: balanced perspective achieved, able to process emotions & make meaning of learning, and cultural awareness Ponterotto’s Model of Cultural Identity Development

13. Unexamined/Diffused ethnic identity: accept ethnic identities of significant family members without exploration; internalize stereotyped identities that pervade media and popular culture Moratorium: exploration of identity and differentiation of culture of origin and dominant culture; emotional experiences & rapid sense of personal & cultural awareness Acceptance: increased & healthy acceptance of identity & allow for full appreciation of multiculturalism Phinney’s Model of Ethnic Identity

14. Personal Identity: sense of self is based on personality constructs that develop within family Choice Group Categorization: forced to choose an ethnicity due to peer, societal, or physical appearance factors Enmeshment/Denial: may feel guilt, disloyalty, self-hatred rooted in choices made in previous stages Appreciation: multiple heritages are explored Integration: experience a sense of wholeness as they learn to integrate their multiple cultural identities Poston’s Biracial Identity Development Model

15. Preschool: Children from birth through age 5 recognize similarities & differences in skin color & hair texture Entry to school: biracial children may be forced to classify themselves Preadolescence: youth increasingly aware of group membership & the social meanings ascribed to physical characteristics Adolescence: developmental & societal factors pressure youth to choose a specific cultural group identity College/Young Adulthood: continuing to embrace single culture identity while expanding sense of self Adulthood: further exploration of culture; increased flexibility in interpersonal relations & understanding of self Kerwin & Ponterotto’s Multiracial Identity Development Model

16. Recognizes that gender, politics, SES, inherited influences, traits & skills, social interactions, & racial and ethnic groupings contribute to identity development Concluded multiracial identity can be situational, simultaneous, flexible, and variant in private and public domains Also significantly influenced by family dynamics, sociopolitical history, hazing, & other affiliations Root’s Ecological Identity Development Model

17. Ruiz’s (1990) Chicano/Latino ethnic identity model Choney, Berryhill-Paapke, and Robbins’ (1995) health model for American Indians Sodowsky, Kwan and Pannu’s (1995) nonlinear model of Asian ethnic identity development Race and Culture-Specific Identity Models

18. Understand & integrate appropriate principles of racial & ethnic identity models Counselors do not force clients through developmental models Counselors need to: Recognize that clients rarely fit into a well-defined stage View clients from contextual/developmental frameworks Seek to increase self-awareness & historical competence regarding issues of multiculturalism Confront and challenge negative or distorted culturally-based perceptions Engage in advocacy & social justice issues Addressing Racial & Ethnic Identity in Counseling

19. Theorized to move through statuses and processes in a fashion similar to that of racial & ethnic identity development. Development intersects with & responds to biological, psychological, & social influences. 3 major gender identity models Males are exposed to stereotyped gender norms at an early age. Gender & Sexual Identity Development

20. Recognizes the primary developmental task for men to be the abandonment of entitlement which leads to a greater sense of self Noncontact type: little awareness of race, or it is ignored & traditional gender roles are valued Claustrophobic type: blame women & people of color for any personal discomfort related to progress or privilege Conscious type: re-evaluate belief system due to an event that creates internal dissonance Empirical type: more fully recognize implications of sexism & racism and his role in their perpetuation Optimal type: understanding of diversity & rewards of interacting with others in a holistic way The Key Model of White Male Development (Scott & Robinson, 2001)

21. Downing & Roush’s and Hoffman’s Models of Feminist Identity

22. Counselors need to: be mindful of varying degrees of salience for individual clients recognize that gender identity statuses are not hierarchical help clients clarify their worldview & understand the benefits & costs of particular ways of interacting be cognizant of personal gender identity statuses & the implications of their own development on their work with clients Addressing Gender Identity in Counseling

23. Focuses on sexual identity development for sexual minorities: gay, lesbian, bisexual, questioning Sexual identity is a continuous, developmental process that culminates in self-acceptance, disclosure, & identity integration Sexual Identity Development

24. Conscious Awareness: realization that gay, lesbian, or bisexual identity is possible; may feel alienated Identity Comparison: tentative commitment to homosexual identity; begin to accept, reject, or partially accept their identity Identity Tolerance: seeking out sexual minorities to alleviate feelings of alienation & enhance self-awareness Identity Acceptance: establish a sense of normalcy Identity Pride: strong commitment to homosexual identity & activism that may not yet be fully integrated into identity Identity Synthesis: homosexual identity is fully integrated with other dimensions of self-identity Cass’ Model of Sexual Identity

25. Sensitization: awareness of same-sex attraction Identity Confusion: growing awareness of same-sex attraction + incongruence between assumed heterosexual & homosexual orientations Identity Assumption: acceptance & same-sex sexual experience Commitment: positive homosexual identity & committed same-sex relationships Troiden’s Model of Sexual Identity

26. Parallel & reciprocal individual & group membership identity processes; not necessarily experienced simultaneously Awareness: Individual - feeling different At group level - different sexual orientations Exploration: Individual - strong, erotic feelings about other women At group level - assessment about feelings regarding lesbians Deepening Commitment: Individual – commit to personal intimate and sexual choices At group level – committing to lesbian & gay community Internalization & Synthesis: Individual – internalization of same-sex love At group level – synthesis of membership in lesbian culture into total self-identity McCarn & Fassinger’s Model of Lesbian/Gay Identity Development

27. Describes bisexual identity as a distinct developmental trajectory Confusion Finding and Applying Labels First two stages involve unsettled feelings regarding attraction to both sexes and assignment of meaning to these unsettled feelings Settling into Identity emerging sense of self-acceptance Continued Uncertainty results from lack of closure stems from society’s lack of tolerance for bisexual identity Weinberg, Williams, & Pryor’s Bisexual Identity Development Model

28. Counselors need to: work inclusively and systemically address issues of discrimination, marginalization, & prejudice work to create inclusive & supportive therapeutic environments that provide safety, acceptance, & freedom from heterosexual assumptions self-examine biases & attitudes regarding sexual biases be cognizant of the different forms of identity development processes coordinate client awareness of community resources continue to enhance their awareness, and participate in research regarding sexual identity development Addressing Sexual Identity in Counseling

29. Spirituality is a personally meaningful experience of the transcendent Informs values & perspectives; provides meaning & mission Associated with well-being, identity, and socialization Does not need to be within the context of an organized religion Spirituality development sometimes used interchangeably with faith development, however, have distinctions Spiritual and Faith Identity Development

30. Intuitive-Projective Faith: young childhood; become aware of cultural faith taboos Mythical-Literal Faith: characteristic in late childhood; focus on religious system & symbols Synthetic-Conventional Faith: adolescence; non-critical evaluation of faith & traditions Individuative-Reflective Faith: older adolescence & adults; demythologize spirituality & critically evaluate spiritual path Conjunctive Faith: adults; appreciative of cultural & traditional faith systems without being bound Universalizing Faith: transcendent moral & religious actions, words, & quality of life Fowler’s Model of Spiritual Identity

31. Adolescent/Conventional: growing self awareness & openness to multiple perspectives Young Adult: probing commitment & the critical choosing of beliefs and values Tested Adult:further commitment & the “testing” of spiritual choices Mature Adult: interdependence & interconnectedness that is comfortable within the context of strong, personal conviction Parks’ Model of Spiritual Identity

32. Based on a sense of self in relation to God Pre-Awareness: low salience for spiritual experiences Awakening: Due to crisis, challenge or series of personally meaningful events leads to an awareness of God that is fragmented & specific to the crisis at hand Recognition: cognitive & emotional understanding of God that permeates all life experiences. Integration:internalized notions of God that order perceptions, interactions, relationships, & behaviors Poll & Smith’s Model of Spiritual Identity

33. Counselors need to: increase awareness of their own spiritual and religious development through articles, books, conversations, activities, reflection, & experiential activities work to understand clients’ faith histories and possible stressors provide a safe, therapeutic environment that normalizes & provides language for the discussion of spirituality help clients identify & talk about personal spiritual experiences incorporate spirituality and the reliance on God in work toward counseling goals refer clients for further spiritual guidance and direction as appropriate Addressing Spiritual Identity in Counseling