War in Ancient Greece

1. War in Ancient Greece Nunc Agenda: Begin a clean page of notes in your history section.

2. Terms for Study • hoplite • hoplon • panoply • phalanx • othismos • Marathon • Thermopylae

3. The Hoplite vs. the Phalanx • some general observations: • average Greek soldier • 5’6”, 150 lbs • average weight of gear • 50-70 lbs • generally agreed phalanx is in use by 650 BC • not everywhere! • some northern Greeks fight like Homeric heroes during the Peloponnesian War • men with hoplite gear not necessarily forming a phalanx • things to remember • all early Greek armies are completely AMATEUR!! • except Sparta! • phalanx battle takes little training, as long as formation is retained

4. bronze bell-cuirass with matching helmet “Argos panoply” 8th century tomb

5. Late 7th century bell-cuirass (2 pieces)

6. Argos helmet, 5 pcs of bronze Corinthian / Illyrian style, single piece of bronze (most helmets had horsehair crest)

7. ASPIS, or HOPLON made from wood, coated with bronze (30 - 40 inch diameter, ca. 15 pounds) antilabe porpax

9. Attic, ca. 560-550 BC

10. greaves • abundant in Homer • re-introduced late • not common until later 7th century BC • early ones knee to ankle • later ones lower thigh to ankle • also found 7th century onwards • ankle guards • foot guards • arm guards • especially upper arm Apulian Greek, ca. 550 BC

11. Spears and Swords • Spear (doru) • length: anywhere from 6.5 to 9 feet • average approx 8 ft • ash or cornel wood • weight approx 2.2 lbs • not for throwing • Sword (ksiphos) • secondary weapon • variety of types • by ca. 500 BC most are 2ft in length, leaf shaped spear point spikes

14. the “hoplite”ὁπλίτης named for his shield, the “hoplon” ὅπλον the phalanx φάλαγξ , closely packed hoplites  

15. Questions…... • what do men do before battle? • how does a phalanx ‘line up’? • how when do the men begin to approach each other • do they run, walk, quick-march? • how well do they retain cohesion during the ‘charge’? • how are skirmishers employed? • what happens during the collision? • what exactly is the othismos? • what functions did other, non-hoplites, serve on the battlefield?

16. Pre-Battle • breakfast • Sparta • comb their hair • Xenophon mentions donning gear at last minute • dismissal of hypaspistai (shield bearers), skeuophoroi (baggage carriers), akolouthoi (attendants) • sphagia: pre-battle sacrifice • rooster, lamb, sheep • harangue from general? • “Not for me a huge general, one with long, straddling legs vaunting in his aristocratic locks and fancy beard. Give me a small man, knock-kneed, but firm on his feet and full of heart.” ---Archilochos

17. Line - Up! • how many deep depends on polis in question • Sparta = 8 (traditional); 12 (by ca.370) • Thebes, Boeotians = 25, 50 • standard = 8-16 • phrase ‘eight shields deep’ • reserves? mere weight? • “it is very hard to find men willing to stand, when they see some of their own side in flight” --Xenophon • Array itself not perfectly understood • Front two or three ranks only have spears protruding beyond promachoi • Final arrangements may be made when opposing armies are VERY close together • Spartans at Nemea sacrificed with enemy 200 yds away • singing, yelling, clanging

18. Dispositions • Right flank (column) reserved for the best • ‘flank of honor’ • front row, right column • in single polis force, best men/general • in allied forces, hegemon or recognized best fighters • far right flank

19. Approach • how to signal the charge? (or, how to signal anything!) • paean • trumpets, aulos • general • balance • running too much vs. lack of steam • run, walk, quick time, or double quick? • perhaps full run begins at 200 yds? • can a phalanx maintain its cohesion with members running at 4-6 mph over moderately uneven ground for 100 yds? • why does it veer to the right as it progresses? • how to navigate trees, rocks, streams, depressions • Aristodemus at Plataea? • skirmishers? cavalry? • what are they used for? • pyknosis (3ft), synapsismos (18in), ‘most open’ (6ft)

23. Use of Skirmishers? • peltast • probably ‘out-of-style’ in early days of phalanx warfare • or at least not mentioned • seen again in large numbers during Peloponnesian War • importance increases during 4th century

24. Othismos • means: “push” • literal or figurative? • how open or closed is actual battle? • can this change during/after the charge? • what would determine victory or defeat in either? • length? • what are the ‘mechanics’? • does weapon skill mean anything? • evidence from Hanson and Van Wees?

25. Death and Wounds • 5% for winners • 14% for loser • 10% of total forces • chasing down fleeing enemies not easy in full gear after a battle! • cavalry! • wounds: • exposed thighs, face, groin • unexposed head, chest • VDH: always infection casualties later

26. Siphnian Treasury, ca. 525

27. Winning and Losing • Early days: Possession of Battlefield • Burial of Dead • On-site dedications (trophai) • temporary *usually* • Subsequent temple dedication • gear, money, building

28. Chaeronea, 338 Serpent Column, Plataea, 479

29. Athenian Treasury at Delphi, Salamis, 480

31. Innovation • “the spirit for competition gave way to the desire for utter destruction” • esp. during Peloponnesian War • manpower shortages, extended, long-distance, or multiple campaigns • Epaminondas • place best guys on the LEFT • staggered (oblique) approach • Leuktra (371 BC)

34. Innovation: Lachaeum • Athenian general Iphikrates • 391/0 BC, Corinthian War • Athenian peltasts destroy 600 Spartans • hit and run • speed and mobility of Spartan cavalry not utilized • Iphikrates’ use of peltasts • half-way point btw classical hoplite phalanx and Macedonian phalanx

35. Phalanx and Tyranny • basileus (Big Man) of Dark Age gradually replaced by aristocracies and oligarchies • tyrants ‘replace’ aristocracies • 670 - 500 BC very common • opportunistic usurpation of polis’ executive power • illegal, but not negative term • usu. short lived (there are exceptions of hereditary tyrannies) • Pheidon, King of Argos • semi-legendary • sources put him in the 8th century; likely he fl. in 7th (attended Olympic Games in 668 BC?) • Aristotle tells about his land reforms and land protection laws • gain popularity among non-aristocratic but moderately wealthy farmers? • use of a phalanx to rival the power of the aristocrats he overcame • Battle of Hysiae, 669 BC • Do tyrants encourage use of phalanx to incorporate untrained, unskilled warrior-farmers? • Do untrained, unskilled warrior-farmers who have been fighting for some time prop up tyrants who ‘speak for them’?

36. Phalanx and Polis • The Questions • How does phalanx warfare affect the existing social conditions? • What happens between Homeric-style social order and the introduction and widespread adoption of phalanx battle order? • Which comes first: semi-wealthy but politically voiceless farmers agitate for reform, support tyrants, fight in phalanges? • are non-aristocratic farmers eager to serve in a phalanx, or are they compelled to serve by their social betters? • kleos, kudos, still important! • may be earned within the phalanx! • service to one’s polis more important, personal gain and glory less important • (but still present!)