Social Psychology of Work Dr. Craig Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology Faculty of Health UCE Birmingham

1. Social Psychology of Work Dr. Craig Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology Faculty of Health UCE Birmingham

2. Scope Organisational behaviour in the workplace Group structures Group behaviour Leadership decision-making Organisational climate Affects Impacts on: Job satisfaction Health Mental well-beingAttendance Stress Turnover Bullying Productivity Ageing Change

3. Industrial Nation History 18th – 19th CENTURY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Decline in domestic industry Large scale factory units Maximum division of labour Hierarchical structures Poor conditions / limited worker power 20th CENTURY 1970s Continuous technological change Production line working Growth of trades unions Improved physical conditions

4. Industrial Nation History LATTER 20th CENTURY Decline of traditional industries Growth of information technology Growth of service industries New patterns and styles of working Changing composition of labour force Decline in trades unions 21st CENTURY Free trade Producer responsibilities Population movements International communities Supra national groups

5. Changes 21st CENTURY Free trade Producer responsibilities Population movements International communities Supra national groups WHAT KIND OF WORK? WHAT PATTERN OF WORK? WHAT STYLE OF WORKING? WHAT KIND OF WORKFORCE? WHAT KIND OF NEEDS?

6. What Kind of Work ? NON-MANUAL KNOWLEDGE-BASED SERVICE WORK

7. What Pattern of Work? 24 HOUR SOCIETY IRREGULAR HOURS NEW TECHNOLOGY CASUALISATION / SHORT-TERM CONTRACTS OUTSOURCING HOME WORKING

8. What Kind of WorkForce? EDUCATED NON-UNIONISED HIGH PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN MULTI-CULTURAL AGEING REQUIREMENT FOR JOB SATISFACTION

9. Traditions of Work Psychology 1. Relationship between the person and the job (Motivation / Satisfaction) 2. Interactions between individuals and groups within organizations

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1954) GROWTH NEEDS HOMOSTATIC NEEDS PEOPLE ALWAYS BEHAVE AS IF SELF- PRESERVATION IS A BASIC GOAL? Self actualisation (personal growth and fulfilment) Esteem (self and others) Belonging (group membership, affection, companionship) Security (safety, stability, continuity) Bodily needs (food, drink, safety)

11. Alternative Theories of Motivation / Job Satisfaction Task Characteristic theory: People motivated by tasks which offer skill variety, value and autonomy Goal-Setting theory: People motivated by clear and demanding goals Reinforcement theory: People motivated by rewards and punishments Equity theory: People motivated by social comparisons made with others – input & outcome Expectancy theory: People motivated when there is a match between what people value (expect to get) and what their job provides

12. Systems Approach to Organisation Liu & Tanaka 2002 – Japanese working men study Input (goods & materials) Transformation Process (mass production tech.) Output (finished goods) Formal system Social system Tech. system

13. Interrelated Sub-Systems FORMAL SYSTEMS Explicitly designed to regulate actions of employees e.g. hierarchy, working time etc. TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS Techniques used by employees The way the work is done SOCIAL SYSTEMS The prevailing culture & context e.g. values, norms, shared attitudes

14. Working Groups Important to understand Inevitable Change individuals' behaviours Can have powerful consequences Understanding increases chance of desirable consequences Why do people join groups? Security Mutual benefit (goal achievement) Need for companionship Self-esteem Mutual interests (sharing)

15. Group Norms Indicate expected behaviour Concerned with observable behaviour Express central values Aid survival of group Obvious to outsiders – statement of intent Make group manageable Accepted by majority of members

16. Why Shun Group Norms Personal goals in conflict with those of group No pride in group membership Pre-occupation with achieving personal goals Not accepted as group member age gender ethnicity education

17. Communication Structure

18. Performance effects – methodological considerations Task monotony cognitive skills Measures speed accuracy efficiency Individual aspects motivation perceived importance age ability health activity Situation / context supervision morale distractions

19. 12 hour shifts Williamson et al. 1994 8hr vs. 12hr rotating psych health improved Australia computer operators reduced tiredness Duchon et al. 1994 8hr vs. 12hr rotating improved sleep Canada miners improved performance Chan & Gan 8hr vs. 12hr rotating no health differences Singapore electronic workers some headaches

20. Vulnerable groups Over 50’s Morning types Long sleepers Personality types Heavy domestic commitments Multiple jobs Some physical conditions Psychiatric problems Employee Selection Pre-employment counselling

21. Management Counselling Education Provide facilities Manipulate schedules carefully Increased control of work Reduce any stress Light quality Drug policy Health Surveillance

22. Standard Shiftwork Index (SSI) Barton et al. 1995 • Questionnaires • Work Context + Shift System • Health • Well-being • Individual Differences • Normative Data

23. Training & Education health effects performance safety quality of life information & awareness coping methods education lifestyle changes info Survey current work schedule Analyse data Identify problem area(s) Recommend schedule changes Shiftworker education Asses & review

24. Intervention strategies • Organisation • Slow / fast rotation (task considerations) • Start times • Rest breaks • Expert systems • Environmental Modification • Bright lights • Mood lights • Temp. compensation • Workload • Facilities • Individual Adjustment • Pharmacological help • Behavioural sleep management, diet, exercise, counselling Evaluate process Evaluate outcome Health Surveillance Do what? How often?

25. Overtime working Extension of normal workday Extension beyond 8 hours (08:00 / 09:00 - 16:00 / 17:00) Non-paid is still overtime Increasing in UK especially managerial & professional groups 1990 UK had twice as many more employees on >48 hrs than any other EU countries More common in males

26. Overtime working Percentage of European employees working <16 hrs per week, and > 48 hrs per week, 1990 If graph was males only?

27. Employers >40hrs per week as % of labour force, 1996 ILO Czech Rep. Turkey S. Korea Iceland Swiss Mexico Hungary USE Canada Japan Ireland UK Australia Portugal Greece Italy Spain Denmark France Germany Norway Sweden Austria Belgium Finland Netherlands

28. Potential effects cardiovascular mental health immune system Stress gastrointestinal musculoskeletal social effects performance impairment Fatigue safety problems Exposure over-exposure

29. Cardiovascular disorders and overtime • Increased Risk > 60hrs > 48hrs Night school students 50 – 60 hrs Overtime (females only) No increased Risk >10 hrs overtime / week “Overtime” BP & Serum Chol. Karoshi Range of CVIs 65%> if 60hrs / wk

30. 1980 SITES WITH MASS PSYCHOGENIC ILLNESS (USA) ? No. of symptoms  1985 KIBBUTZIM (ISRAEL) > 8 hrs/ day Smoking  1987 MUSIC THERAPISTS (USA) < 50 Burnout X 1990 BUS DRIVERS (UK) ? Psychiatric Status (Crown Crisp)  1991 COACH DRIVERS (AUSTRALIA) 30-70 Stimulant use/ Sleep disturbance  1992 FEMALE HOSPITAL STAFF (USA) 32-19 Exhaustion/ Insomnia  1994 FACTORY WORKERS (JAPAN) ? Psychiatric State (GHQ)  1995 ACCOUNTANT (UK) ? Psychiatric Status (GHQ)  1991 - 1995 MANAGERIAL STAFF (USA/JAPAN) ? 50 - 55 Stress (OSI)  1991 - 1995 CLERICAL STAFF (USA/JAPAN) ? Stress (OSI)  1996 ACADEMICS 50 Stress (SACL) X Mental Health

31. Health & Well-being: Methodological Issues Mostly Cross-sectional studies Direction of any association Lag Healthy worker / Survivor Effects Response Rates Control Groups Exposure Assessment Outcome Measures

32. Performance Effects: Optimal Productivity Mather 1894 Engineering Weekly hours of 48 - 53 Abbia 1901 Optical Instrument Makers Daily hours of 8/9 max. Vernon 1918 Munitions workers Weekly hours of 50 - 60 Accounts for > degree of munitions errors in WWI ?

33. Performance Effects: Accidents General Data Analyses suggests: Rise in accident rates after 9hrs work Cognitive (simulations) studies suggests errors increase after 8 hrs work HOWEVER Shift change from 8 to 12 hrs Safety record stays same Attitudes ? Safety culture increased ? Schedule org ? Nature of work ?

34. Existing Gaps in Research Irregular Hours Increased concomitant exposure to other hazards Reproductive effects Family / Social influences Behavioural Effects Effect Modifiers Intervention procedures

35. Performance at work Dilemmas Working Hours Shiftwork Mental Distress Dr. Craig Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology Faculty of Health & Community Care University of Central England

36. Regulation of working hours Linear Assumption King Nimrod Pieter Bruegel 1563 units time

37. Regulation of working hours • Linear Assumption remained • 1800 – 1900 • 12 hour days & 6 day weeks • Thomas Paine 1737 - 1809 • Age of Reason • Rights of Man • Annie Besant 1847 – 1933 • Reformist movement Fabian Sciety Secular Society • “Fruits of philosophy” “The Link” “White slavery in London” • 1889 • Humanitarian concerns influenced change • 48 hour week + regular rest = increased productivity

38. Regulation of working hours 1900 – 1970 progressive reduction in working hours traditional work patterns 1970  working hours increase shiftwork increases irregular hours increase 24 hour processing technology unpaid extended hours flexible working annualised hours

39. European directive on working time Organisation of work Min. daily rest period of 11 consecutive hours per 24 hours 1 rest break where working day > 6 hours Min. uninterrupted rest period of 35 hours per 7 day period Max. of 48 work per week Min. 4 weeks paid annual leave

40. European directive on working time Night work Mean 8 hours work in any 24 hour period Free health assessment before assignment and at regular intervals Transfer to day work when suffering health problems connected with night work Night work and shifts Protection appropriate to the nature of the night work Prevention and protection services on parity with day workers Take account of principles adapting work to the workers

41. Derogations Certain jobs junior docs Certain industries press media utility provision Circumstances where rests are not practicable Does not apply to: health checks provision of health and safety facilities Nearly 900 extra consultants will be needed by 2010 compensate for a reduction in doctors’ hours due to EWTD BMJ 2002;325:855

42. Shiftwork Any work regularly undertaken outside “normal” working hours Normal working hours = 07:00 – 18:00 Nights Early am Evening Fixed Rotating Eight hour Twelve hour Effects Circadian disruption Sleep loss Fatigue Social disruption

43. Circadian Rhythms Body Temp Pulse Urinary excretion Blood pressure Hormonal changes Mental Performance Physical Performance Physiologically determined Socially modified & Externally cued

44. Circadian Rhythms

45. Adjustment to shiftworking Aprrox. 7 days to adjust to shift External cues hamper adjustment Nightworking sometimes never achieves adjustment Slow rotating shifts partial adjustment continual adjustment continual disrhythmia state Rapid rotating shifts no adjustment

46. Adjustment to shiftworking stress strain organisational effects Phase-shifting of waking and sleeping hours Impaired performance Impaired health Disturbed relationships > Absenteeism > Accidents > Labour turnover < Productivity modifying factors Individual characteristics Job-related factors Environment Domestic Colquhoun & Rutenfranz 1980

47. Cardiovascular problems associated with shiftwork Increased Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD) Knutsson et al. 1986, 1988 Increased risk of IHD and Myocardial Infarction (MI) Akerstedt et al. 1986 Increased risk of Coronary V related disorders – Permanent Nightworkers Teiger 1984 Some studies show NO increased risk Bursey 1990 Chan et al. 1987, 1993 Kobayashi et al. 1992

48. Cardiovascular problems of shiftwork Liu & Tanaka 2002 – Japanese working men study 260 cases 445 controls Working Hours, Sleeping Hours and Acute MI Working hours related to: increased risk in year prior to AMI increased risk in month prior to AMI x2 increase in risk for overtime (>61 hours) x2-3 increase in risk for <5 hours sleep x2-3 increase for lack of sleep (2 or more days with <5 hours sleep) lack of sleep & few days off in recent past show > odds than those in past Overtime work and lack of sleep may be related to AMI

49. Gastrointestinal disorders and shiftwork Indigestion (Chan et al. 1987) (Poole et al. 1992) Reflux Peptic Ulceration (Waterhouse et al. 1992) Related to: irregular hours circadian dysrhythmia poor catering facilities inequality in GP access

50. Gastrointestinal disorders and shiftwork • Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) • 13-52% new referrals to GI (Walker et al. 1990) • Some occupations have > G.I than others (Cucino & Sonnenburg, 2001) • IBD < in manual workers and farmers IBD > in sedentary workers • Assoc. with occupation difficult to prove • shift workers seen as greatest risk of IBS • especially nightworkers • night workers present in GI more than day workers • Access / Availability reasons ? • genuine aspects ? • Research fails to answer: psychosocial aspects of workers ? • effects of shiftwork lifestyle ?