Chapter Overview

Organizational and Governance in American EducationEDU 548 - Spring 2013 SemesterThursday, March 21, 2013Chapter Twelve Presentation: “The Local System of Policy Making”Presented by: Anyha Lord-JerrisProfessor: Dr. Lauren Larsen

Chapter Overview • Overview of the local education government level; • Description of the legal framework, major policy actors, and scope of authority; • Examine special issues related to educational politics and policymaking; • Special issues include: individual access to policymaking, group access to policymaking, the effectiveness of school boards, and school site politics.

Overview of Local Education Governance • Legally, an American public school district is an agency of state government. “The local school district is a state agency that simply operates at the local level” (p.92). • 49 states have established many school districts and delegated a lot of authority to them. The only exception is Hawaii which has a single centralized school system. In the last 20 yrs, 49 districts in 19 different states have been taken over: Chicago, New York City and Philadelphia

Characteristics of School Districts

Major Political Actors at the Local Level

Major Political Actors at the Local Level • School Board / School Committee • There are approximately 100,000 school board members in the country, 96% are elected; others are appointed (Hess, 2002) • The school board sets the general policy direction for the district and adopts its own budget. One of its most important tasks is hiring the superintendent. • Superintendents and Other Administrators • Teaching force is predominately female but 80% of superintendents are male. • Ethnically, 90% of superintendents are white, 5% African American, and 3% Hispanic (Hess 2002) • Superintendents are assisted by other administrators such as assistant superintendents, curriculum directors, supervisors and business managers.

Major Political Actors at the Local Level • Mission of the VI Board of Education The Virgin Islands Board of Education is committed to its vision and will promote the transformation of the structure of existing public education through: • Governance over the Public Education System• Improved student, parent, teacher relationships• Comprehensive community engagement• Standards that promote high academic achievement• Creation of an environment that is conducive to effective communication• Enhanced quality of professional development for all staff• Provision of adequate resources to achieve our vision, goals and objectives.

Major Political Actors at the Local LevelVI Board of Education Board Members

The Scope of Local District Authority • School Boards were established in the late 1700s and the state gave them a lot of authority up until the 1980s. Factors contributing to the decline in school board authority • Decline of school board authority began with the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) • Desegregation orders issued by federal courts • Massive expansion of special education programs • Education reform movements of 1980s and 1990s • No Child Left Behind Act (2001) NCLB Authority of School Board • The school calendar and teacher salaries Note: School boards have less authority than they did 50 yrs ago.

Special Issues in Local Politics & Policymaking • Individual Access to Decision Making • Models of decision making in political systems are of three types: populist, elite, and mixed. • Populist view – belief that people vote to select representatives who will reflect their policy viewpoints. • Elite view – belief that small groups that are very knowledgeable about the policy system restrict popular input into policymaking in order to forward their own views. • Mixed view – belief that ordinary citizens and elite groups interact collaboratively to make policy.

Special Issues in Local Politics & Policymaking • School Board Elections • Have a low turnout of about 12% • Voter turnout and socioeconomic level of the district have a direct relationship (higher income and educational level the higher the voter turnout). Reasons for Low Voter Turnout • No party label on the candidate • Voters prefer professional educators to run the school • The media’s poor coverage of school board issues • Candidates not well known by voters

Special Issues in Local Politics & Policymaking • School Board Elections • How do people decide to run for board seats? Must: • Be of a certain age and live in the district; • Have access to resources such as campaign funds; • Have knowledge and awareness about school issues; • Have a record of community activism in civic affairs, business, politics, or schools. Individuals who exhibit these characteristics are of a higher social status • Dissatisfaction Theory and the “Zone of Tolerance” • School districts are in a state of dissatisfaction when the values of the community, school board and superintendent are not aligned. • Superintendents are knowledgeable about what the community will tolerate and what it will not.

Special Issues in Local Politics & Policymaking Characteristics of American School Board Members Source: Based on Hess (2002) {Textbook page 248}

Special Issues in Local Politics & Policymaking Referenda and Policymaking • Two important questions about referenda are: • Why do citizens vote in referenda? • Who votes in the referenda? Voting for a referenda depends on the following: • Educational level • Individuals who are stakeholders such as parents or guardians • People who feel alienated from schools will vote “no” as will people who live in very politicized districts.

Special Issues in Local Politics & Policymaking • The Pressure Group Context of Local School Districts • The greater the impact of the pressure group when they unite as a group instead of when one individual is pushing an issue. • The Rise of Narrow Interest Groups • Reasons people join groups: solidarity, benefits, psychological reward, and strong interest in brining about change. • Initial dominant education pressure group – the National Education Association (NEA) • Social movements further goals based on class, race, religion, or gender; women’s liberation movement and Christian Right groups. The growth of narrow pressure groups has been the decline of groups such as the Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) and American Association of University Women (AAUW)

Impact of Interest Group Pressures on Superintendents • Superintendents Must • Have a balance between internal forces such as teachers and external forces such as the general public; • Become more politically savvy; • Be trained in topics such as: working effectively with the news media, communicating with the public, and resolving conflicts among various community groups. Superintendents experience a rise in stress and job satisfaction drops and therefore turnover of superintendents is high.

The Usefulness of School Boards • Have School Boards Outlived their Usefulness? • The are four trends that have undermined the authority of school boards • Site-Based Management – schools manage their own budgets, hire personnel and contract for outside service such as maintenance. • State and Mayoral Takeover • School Choice Plans • The Standards and Accountability Movement (NCLB 2001) • Are school boards the most effective form of government for our educational system? • Critics believe school boards should be abolished –(No district level governance and every school should answer to the state). • Place all school districts under some form of mayoral control (Schools would become fiscally dependent). • Replace school boards with policy boards. • Many people believe that school boards should be retained but reformed

Micropolitics Within Schools Schools have internal politics where teachers and principals must constantly negotiate for scare resources, autonomy, smooth school operations, and good schedules to name a few. The diagram on the right illustrate some of the scarce resources that teachers must compete for.

Micropolitics Within Schools • The Principal experiences pressure from various individuals and groups. The diagram on the right illustrates some of the internal pressure groups within the school. • Principals must develop strategies to deal with the pressures such as: • Controlling the agenda at meetings • Turn the pressures to different directions • Control the flow of information

Conclusion • Political conflict is more intense in some areas than others however, there are healthy political processes where individuals are able to negotiate and compromise. Principals and superintendents should obtain as much information as possible about local politics before accepting an employment offer which can ultimately determine their success or failure as an educational administrator.

Chapter Overview