How to Write a Research Paper in English

1. How to Write a Research Paper in English Dr. SajadShafiee

2. The Structure of a Research Paper • Title page • Abstract • Introduction • Literature Review • Methodology • Results • Discussion and Conclusions • References • Appendix(es)

3. Title Page • Title • at most 10-12 words • Content Words Capitalized, e.g. Collaborative Learning in Writing Classes • No use of such words in the title: Novel, First, A Study of, etc. • No use of abbreviation or acronym in the title • Authors’ Names (initial letters in capital) • Corresponding Author?! Order of Names?! • Affiliation • Department of English, ShahrekordBranch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran • Font: Consistent in the title page; Cultivate simplicity

4. Abstract • Abstract contains: • Overview (background) of the study • Aim of the study (the problem of the study) • Methodology used in the study (participants, data collection instruments, procedures, data analysis tools) • Findings • Implications

5. A Sample Abstract Computer technology has crept into many areas of education and language pedagogy, and has left mixed results behind. The motive behind this study was to figure out (a) whether teaching prewriting strategies via the computer software Inspiration 9 could be used as a viable resource to boost EFL learners’ command of L2 writing, and (b) whether the targeted L2 learners welcomed the application of this software for the purpose of prewriting strategies instruction. To meet the objectives of the study, 63 intermediate Iranian EFL learners (41 female and 22 male) who were studying English in intact classes at JahadDaneshgahi, Isfahan, Iran, were conveniently accessed. The learners formed an experimental group, which was taught, through Inspiration 9 software, to use prewriting strategies pertinent to generating ideas through freewriting, brainstorming, listing, clustering, and asking wh-questions during the planning stage of writing, and a control group, in which the learners received the same type of instruction in a traditional classroom setting. Data obtained from writing pretest and posttest scores of the two groups were analyzed through independent-sample t test, and indicated that the experimental groupers significantly outperformed their control group counterparts. A researcher-made questionnaire was also handed out to the learners in the experimental group, the results of which, analyzed through one-sample t test, revealed that the EFL learners under investigation held positive attitudes towards the teaching of prewriting strategies via the computer software Inspiration 9. Implications for ELT teachers include, among other things, incorporation of useful technological tools, such as Inspiration 9, in L2 teaching classes.

6. The Abstract’s Structure Computer technology has crept into many areas of education and language pedagogy, and has left mixed results behind. The motive behind this study was to figure out (a) whether teaching prewriting strategies via the computer software Inspiration 9 could be used as a viable resource to boost EFL learners’ command of L2 writing, and (b) whether the targeted L2 learners welcomed the application of this software for the purpose of prewriting strategies instruction.To meet the objectives of the study, 63 intermediate Iranian EFL learners (41 female and 22 male) who were studying English in intact classes at JahadDaneshgahi, Isfahan, Iran, were conveniently accessed. The learners formed an experimental group, which was taught, through Inspiration 9 software, to use prewriting strategies pertinent to generating ideas through freewriting, brainstorming, listing, clustering, and asking wh-questions during the planning stage of writing, and a control group, in which the learners received the same type of instruction in a traditional classroom setting. Data obtained from writing pretest and posttest scores of the two groups were analyzed through independent-sample t test, and indicated that the experimental groupers significantly outperformed their control group counterparts. A researcher-made questionnaire was also handed out to the learners in the experimental group, the results of which, analyzed through one-sample t test, revealed that the EFL learners under investigation held positive attitudes towards the teaching of prewriting strategies via the computer software Inspiration 9. Implications for ELT teachers include, among other things, incorporation of useful technological tools, such as Inspiration 9, in L2 teaching classes.

7. Exercise: Identify the Structure of This Abstract • Grammatical competence, as a subcomponent of the overall language competence, has long been the target of much controversial debate in SLA, and its importance as well as the vital role it plays in the process of SLA are beyond question. In the history of SLA, a myriad of techniques have been proposed to help L2 learners develop their grammatical competence. The aim of the present was to examine the effectiveness of dicto-comp and standard dictation in boosting male and female intermediate Iranian EFL learners. To achieve the objective of the study, 120 intermediate learners studying English at a language institute in Isfahan, Iran, were the selected as the subjects of the study after they took a placement test (the OQPT) and were shown to meet the homogeneity criterion. The learners were then divided into four groups of equal size: Female Dicto-Comp Group (FDCG), Male Dicto-Comp Group (MDCG), Female Standard Dictation Group (FSDG), and Male Standard Dictation Group (MSDG). All the subjects in different groups took a grammar pretest. FDCG and MDCG learners were exposed to dicto-comp in their classes, while FSDG and MSDG were in classes where standard dictation was practiced. Subsequently, the all learners were given a grammar posttest. Comparisons of pretest-posttest scores of the four groups through paired-samples t tests revealed that both dicto-comp and dictation exerted statistically significant effects on the grammatical competence of both female and male EFL learners, yet dicto-comp appeared to have greater effects on the grammatical competence of the learners, and female learners were found to improve slightly more than did male learners. Implication of the study include, among other things, a more serious incorporation of both dictation and dicto-comp in the language teaching curricula.

8. Precautions to Keep in Mind for Writing an Abstract • No use of abbreviations or acronyms unless they are either common or defined • No in-text citation in the abstract • Between 150-200 words • Check the abstract against your title; if there are words in your title which are not reflected in your abstract, consider revising either of them.

9. The Language of Abstracts: AIMS

10. The Language of Abstract Contd. After stating the aims of the study, you may use one of the following phrases, which lead you smoothly to the Methods section of the abstract: • For the purpose of the study, • To this end, • In so doing, • Therefore, • To fulfill the objectives of the study, • To achieve the aims of the study, • To find answers to the research questions of the study,

11. The Language of Abstracts: METHODS • Twenty-two participants (6 males, 16 females) who were randomly selected constituted the sample of the study. • The sample consisted of a total of 6 intact classes with 6 different teachers and 118 students. • More than 100 male and female experienced teachers were recruited, through stratified random sampling, in this study. • The intermediate learners at the institute served as the participants of the study. • Two intact classes (N = 67) were randomly assigned to experimental and control conditions. • A sample of 27 learners was drawn/selected, through availability sampling, from the population.

12. The Language of Abstracts: METHODS Contd. • The experimental classes received instruction according to ……, whereas the control classes followed …… . Students were pretested and posttested on their knowledge of …… . • The data were collected through observations of three lessons and subsequent interviews with each teacher. • The participants in each group were required/assigned to write an essay as the pretest. Students also completed/ filled out a 15-item researcher-made questionnaire exploring their attitudes towards …… • Students (N = 60) were assigned to one of the three groups (……group, ……group, and ……group) and were exposed/subjected to instruction on …….They were subsequently assessed on the following three measures of language production: (a) ……, (b) ……, and (c) …… .

13. The Language of Abstracts: RESULTS • Results of an independent-samples t test indicated thatthere was no significant difference between …… and …… • Similarly, there was no statistically significant difference between the posttest scores of the two groups. • The results of the study showed/ revealed/ divulged/ demonstrated/ indicated/ unfolded/ unearthed/ unraveled that there was a positive relationship between …… and …… . • However, the difference between the two groups failed to reach statistical significance / did not turn out to be of statistical significance. • The findings from the study illustrated how …… . • Significant differences were found between …… and …… groups in favor of the latter on the variables of ……, ……, and …… .

14. The Language of Abstracts: IMPLICATIONS • The results of the study suggest that using …… leads to …… . • The findings provide support for …… . • The results support the prediction that …… . • The findings offer insight into ……. . • The results prompt a re-thinking of ……. . • It could be construed/ concluded/ inferred from the results of the study that ……. • The study bears several implications for L2 writing: ……

15. Introduction Typical Moves in INTRODUCTION: • Establishing a research territory • Establishing a niche • Occupying the niche

16. Establishing a Research Territory • By showing that the general area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant (OPTIONAL); verb tenses: simple present (since we write statements here which are generally accepted truth) or present perfect (since we write about the truth which continues up to the present moment) • By providing background information about the topic (OPTIONAL) • By introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area (OBLIGATORY) • By defining the key terms (OPTIONAL)

17. Establishing a Niche • By indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way (OBLIGATORY) • By identifying a problem or need (OPTIONAL) • Language is evaluative in a negative way: disregard; failed to consider; ignored; is limited to; misinterpret; neglect to consider; suffer from; controversial; incomplete; inconclusive; misguided; questionable; unconvincing; unsatisfactory; little information/ attention/ work/ data/ research; few studies/ investigations/ research/ attempts; it remains unclear; None of these studies/ findings/ calculations

18. Occupying the Niche • By outlining purposes/ aims, or stating the nature of the present research, the research questions, or research hypotheses (OBLIGATORY) • By stating the value of the present research (OPTIONAL) • By outlining the structure of the study (OPTIONAL) • Among the 3 moves in INTRODUCTION, this is the shortest part

19. Precautions to Keep in Mind for Writing an Introduction • Avoid writing a lengthy introduction; How long should the introduction be? Less than 2/3 of the Results Section. • Cite recent references in the introduction • If you invented or used novel instruments or methods, mention them in the Introduction and state the reasons why you used them

20. The Language of Introduction • Over the past century, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of studies which have focused on …… . • Tasks can be used in both ESL and EFL classes and for learners at different levels of proficiency. • A learning task is a major component of many L2 classes today. • In the past 5 years, an impressive research effort has been directed toward .. • Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in …… • …… has generated considerable recent research interest in the last decades. • …… has received much attention in the recent years. • One of the most significant current discussions in …… has been ….. • Recent developments in the field of …… have led to a renewed interest in …… • Recent developments in …… have heightened the need for ……

21. Literature Review LR Should focus on: • The key issues which underlie the research project • The major findings on the research topic, by whom and when • The main points of view and controversies that surround the issue under investigation • A critical evaluation of these issues, indicating strengths and weaknesses of previous studies on the topic]general conclusions about the state of the art at the time of writing, including what research still needs to be done; that is, the gap that still remains in the research that the study will aim to fill.

22. Arrangement of Materials in the LR • According to the various questions to be asked • According to the various topics and subtopics that are central to the study • According to the certain variables in the study • Chronologically from oldest to more recent research • According to different points of view • A combination of these

23. For Providing Background Information, You Need to Ask: • Who carried out the research? • Who were the subjects of the research? • Why was it carried out? • Where was it carried out? • How was it carried out? • When was the research published? • What was the results of the study?

24. Verbs Often Used in the LR

25. Critiquing Previous Research • Is the research problem clearly stated? • Are the variables clearly described and defined? • Is the design of the study appropriate for the particular research question? • Are the research instruments appropriate for the particular study? • Are the data analysis procedures appropriate? • Are the conclusions, implications, and recommendations warranted by the results?

26. To Comment on Previous Research, You May Use: • Hedges: might, perhaps, possible, likely • Boosters: in fact, definitely, it is clear that • Attitude markers: unfortunately, surprisingly, I agree • Engagement markers: consider, note that, you can see that

27. Points to Keep in Mind for Writing LR • Avoid plagiarism: • Change the word: studies => research society => civilization mud => deposits inefficient => does not work • Change the word class: Egypt => Egyptian mountainous regions => in the mountains • Change the word order: Ancient Egyptians collapsed when… => the collapse of Egyptian society began when… • To remove unnecessary citations, you could write: Brainy et al. (1999) and references therein suggest that ….

28. The Language of LR: Referring to Past Studies • Many researchers have argued that …… (e.g. Ellis, 2008; Johnson, 2011) • Numerous studies have attempted to explain …… (e.g. Jones, 2014) • Recent evidence suggests that …… (O’Neill, 2016; Smith, 2015) • Several attempts have been made to …… (Smith, 1996; Laya, 2011; Zhu, 2010) • Previous studies have reported ……. (e.g. ….) • Previous research findings into …… have been inconsistent and contradictory (Ross, 2014) • Many studies worldwide have examined the relationship between …. and …. • It has been demonstrated that ……. (e.g. ……) • The relationship between …… and …… has been widely investigated (e.g. ….)

29. The Language of LR: Referring to Past Studies

30. The Language of LR: Referring to the Gap in Previous Studies • However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in …… • In addition, no research has been found surveying the learners’ beliefs about L1 use. • However, a question that needs to be answered is whether …. is superior to …. or not. • To date, there has been little agreement on what constitutes the best technique for …., and the findings are still inconclusive. • Few researchers have addressed the problem of …… • There remains a need for ….. • However, far too little attention has been paid to ….. • The research to date has focused on ….. rather than …… • In sum, despite a large number of studies on ……, very few studies have investigated ….

31. The Language of LR: Stating the Aims • This paper focuses on ….. • The purpose of this study is to describe and examine ….. • This paper reviews relevant literature on ….. • This paper is organized as follows: …. • This study is especially concerned with ….. • This paper focuses on/ examines/ gives an account of …. • The objectives of the research are to determine …. and ….examine ….. • The aim pf this paper was to evaluate and validate …… • In light of the points highlighted by previous literature, the present study was guided by the following research questions:

32. Methodology Methodology includes: • Research design • Participants: their characteristics (age, sex, ethnic group, level of education…) and the sampling procedure • Materials and instruments (i.e. data collection techniques) • Procedures • Data analysis

33. The Language of Methodology: SAMPLE • The initial sample consisted of 200 students of whom 13 did not complete all of the interviews. • All of the participants were aged between 18 and 19 at the beginning of the study. • Two groups of subjects were interviewed, namely X and Y. The first group were/ was …. • A random sample of patients with …… was recruited from ….. • The students were divided into two groups based on their performance on the ……. Test. • The project used a convenience sample of 32 first-year language students/ • Just over half of the sample (53%) was female, of whom 69% were married. • Participants were recruited from clinics across ….., covering urban and rural areas. • A small sample size was chosen because of …… • The subjects were selected on the basis of …… • Criteria for selecting the subjects were as follows:

34. The Language of Methodology: INSTRUMENTS • To investigate the 2 research questions posed in the present study, a questionnaire consisting of two major parts was developed/adopted/adapted based on the relevant literature about … • In the first part of the questionnaire, the participants were asked to provide demographic information such as gender, age, and language background. • The second part assessed the participants’ degrees of ….. across three domains (i.e., ……, ……, and ……). • All the questionnaire items were based on a 7-point Likert scale with the values ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) to ensure sufficient variation among the item scores. • The pretest was a vocabulary knowledge test comprising/including/consisting of 30 multiple-choice questions. This test had already been piloted on a small group (n = 10) of students with similar characteristics to those of the participants in this study, and its reliability (calculated through Cronbach’s alpha) was found to be .85. In addition, a panel of experts approved of/established its validity. • The posttest was similar to the pretest in terms of content and format, except that the order and organization of the items and options were altered.

35. The Language of Methodology: PROCEDURES • Prior to the commencement of the experiment, ethical clearance was sought from …. • At the outset of the study, ….. • Once the exposures were completed, the Xs were removed from each Y and placed in … • Finally, questions were asked as to the role of …. • Data management and analysis was performed using SPSS, version 21. • Injection solutions were coded by a colleague to reduce experimenter bias. • The subjects were asked to pay close attention to …. • Blood samples were obtained with consent from 256 patients. • One-way ANOVA was conductedto capture the possible differences among the learners in the 4 groups, and a post hoc Scheffe test was also run for this purpose. • Significance level was set at .01for the analyses performed in this study.

36. Results • Statistics; choose the right statistics • Tables; write table captions correctly • Figures • Do not repeat in your tables what you have written in the text

37. The Language of Results • The most striking result which emerged from the data was that …. • Interestingly, this correlation is related to …. • The correlation between …. and ….. was interesting because ….. • The response rate was 60% at six months and 52% at 12 months. • Of the initial participants, 90 students and 12 teachers completed and returned the questionnaires. • The majority of the respondents felt/ thought/ believed/ maintained/ claimed/ were of the opinion that …. • When the subjects were asked about …., the majority commented that ….. • Some participants expressed the belief that …… • One individual stated that …., and another commented that …..

38. The Language of Results: DESCRIBING FIGURES • Figure 1 shows/ presents/ displays/ demonstrates that …… • The results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X are shown/ presented in Figure 2. • As shown in Figure 3, …. • The pie chart above clearly illustrates the …… • The bar chart reveals that …. • It is obvious from the figure that ….. • The most important piece of information in Figure 2 concerns the …..

39. The Language of Results: DESCRIBING TABLES • Table 1, shows the mean scores and the standard deviations of the two groups in the study. • The results, as shown in Table 1, indicated that ….. • As Table 3 shows, there was a significant difference (t = -2.15, p = .03) between the two groups. • Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table 6, which shows …. • It is apparent from this table that ….. • Table 5 shows/ compares/ presents/ provides the experimental data on X. • This table is quite revealing in several ways. First, unlike the other tables, …..

40. The Language of Results: T Test • An independent t test was conducted to compare the posttest scores of the control and experimental group. There was a significant difference in the control group (M = 13.85, SD = 2.83) and experimental group (M = 15.60, SD = 2.30); t(38) = -2.143, p = 0.039 < 0.05. The magnitude of the difference in the means was small/moderate/large. • A paired-samples t test was conducted to evaluate the impact of teaching reading comprehension strategies on their reading comprehension ability. There was a statistically significant increase in reading comprehension scores from the pretest (M = 13.6, SD = 2.77) to the posttest (M = 15.6, SD = 2.30), t(19) = -2.629, p = 0.017 < 0.05. The eta square statistic indicated a large/moderate/small effect size.

41. The Language of Results: ANOVA • A one-way between-groups ANOVA was conducted to explore the impact of instruction mode on writing quality. Subjects were divided into three groups according to the mode of input delivery (traditional, web-based, and hybrid groups). There was a statistically significant difference at p = 0.000 < 0.05 level in writing scores for the three groups. Effect Size was calculated and seen to be .12. Post-hoc comparisons using Scheffe test indicated that the mean score of hybrid group (M = 17.21) was significantly different from traditional group (M = 13.60) and web-based group (M = 14.70). There was not, however, a significant difference between traditional group and web-based group.

42. The Language of Results: Correlation and Chi-Square • The relationship between the scores of teacher-made test and the TOEFL was investigated using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. There was a strong positive correlation between the two variables, r = 0.96, n = 10, p < 0.05, with high scores on the teacher-made test associated with high scores of the TOEFL. • Chi-square test indicated a significant association between the participants (teachers and policy makers) and their opinions; p = 0.000

43. Discussion and Conclusions • Discussion includes: • Restatement of the problem • Summary of the results • Explanation of the results in the light of the research questions • Comparison of the results with the findings of the previous researchers • Conclusion summarizes the research • Implications (theoretical/practical), limitations of the study, and suggestions for further research may also appear at the end of a paper.

44. Precautions to Keep in Mind for Writing the Discussion Section • Discussion should not be longer than Introduction or Results • No new results should be found in the Discussion section of a paper

45. The Language of Discussion: COMPARISONS • The study yielded results which corroborate the findings of a myriad of researchers in the field (e.g. …). • The findings of the current study are consistent with those of Gass (2001, 2004). • This finding lends support to the idea of Smith (2009), who suggested that …. • This finding is in agreement withAhad’s (1999) findings, which showed …. • There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by the respondents in this study and those described by Rian (2006) and Susuka (1998). • The findings further support the idea of ….. • This also accords with/ complies with our earlier observations, which showed that ……. • The obtained results in this study are congruent with/ in line with/ compatible with those of previous researchers.

46. The Language of Discussion: COMPARISONS • However, the findings of the present study do not support/ contradict/ run counter to/ are in contradiction with previous research. • In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected. • Although these results are consistent with those of Hite (2015) and Willis (2014), they differ from some published studies like Alan (2006). • There are several possible explanations for this result: • A plausible explanation for this might be ….. • This results might be justified/ explained by the fact that …. • The inconsistency/ discrepancy may be due to ….. • The possible interference of X cannot be rules out. • The observed increase in X could be attributed to/ accounted for by/ explained by …. • Some authors have speculated that … • A possible explanation for this results may be (due to) the lack of adequate ….

47. The Language of Discussion: Contributions • The findings enhance our understanding of …… • This research will serve as a base for future studies and …. • The current findings add substantially to our understanding of …… • The current findings add to a growing body of literature on …… • The study has gone some ways towards enhancing our understanding of …… • The present study makes several noteworthy contributions to …… • The empirical findings in this study provide a new understanding of ….

48. References • References Vs. Bibliography • Format?!!!

49. Acknowledgements • Who should be acknowledged? • How?