Theory

1. Theory • Theory: a systematic explanation for the observation that relate to a particular aspect of life (Juvenile Delinquency) or socio-political process (Conflict, Peace, Social Stratification etc.). • In science, a way of looking at a field that is intended to have explanatory and predictive implications. The task for the philosophy of science has often been posed in terms of demarcating good or scientific theories from bad, unscientific ones (see Falsifiability), OUP Dictionary of philosophy (2008). • Today, SS theory has to do with what is; not what should be (E. Babbie 2012).

2. Research Trend adapted from Wallace's model of science the Logic of Science of Soc. Theories Hypothesis Empirical Generalization Inductive Deductive Observation

3. Paradigm Etymology of Paradigm: An etymological analysis shows us that the word comes from the latin word ‘paradigma’, and appears in Greek as ‘paradeigma’, whose English translation is ‘example’, or as its earlier form ‘paradeiknunai’. The prefix ‘para-‘ meaning ‘alongside’, and ‘deiknunai’ meaning ‘to show,’ so the two words together sound as ‘alongside shown’ or ‘what shows itself beside’. But what is it that we “show alongside” or that “appears alongside”?

4. "How a Paradeigma to Paradigm" To exact the meaning of "paradigm" we need to trace out the works of Plato and Aristotal. Plato used ‘paradeigma’ - pattern, example, sample. According to him sometimes the paradigm acts from sensible things to ideas, whereas sometimes it acts from ideas to the things. In the sense that the generality or the idea does not result from a logic consequence by means of induction from the exhaustive enumeration of the individual cases. Rather it is produced by the comparison by only one paradigm, one singular example, with the object or class that the paradigm will make intelligible.

5. Paradeigma to Paradigm • For Aristotal "paradeigma" is rhetorical counterpart of dialectic induction, "When two statements are of the same order, but one is more familiar (knowable) than the other, the former is an "example (paradeigma)" (ibid). • Furthermore, he says that the paradigm is more knowable than the other participant, but does not discuss this issue any further.

6. Paradigm (image of subject matter within a science) • In 1962, the philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn published a book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Following to him it is an image of subject matter within a science . In this book he had was greatly focused on hard sciences (for example how physics is different than Chemistry) rather than social sciences. • However, the concept picked up by academics and intellectuals in a wide range of fields (for example, Hollinger, 1980, in history; Searle , 1972, in linguistics; Stanfield, 1974, in economics) and to none was it more important to sociologists (Ritzer).

7. George Ritzer I. what should be studied? II. what questions should be asked? III. how they should be asked? & IV. what rules should be followed in interpreting the answers obtained? The paradigm is the broadest unit of consensus within a science and serves to differentiate one scientific community (or sub-community) from another. It subsumes, defines, and interrelates the exemplars, theories, and methodologies and methods.

8. Present assumption • Inter-relationship between Paradigm and Theories • Theories are only part of larger paradigms ( a paradigm may encompass multiple theories as well as different images of the subject matter, methods and exemplars (specific work that stand as a model for all those who follow) For example state of social exclusion and inclusion in this changed Nepali social and political context.

9. The Process of Paradigm Shift (Ritzer) Paradigm I Normal Science Anomalies Crisis Revolution Paradigm II

10. Paradigm Case II Incremental/Shifting Across the Periodizations Rana Regime Penchant Regime Multiparty Democracy Loktantra

11. Epistemology • Episteme: Geek meaning "knowledge, understanding", ology "study of", it is a branch of philosophy with the nature and scope of knowledge • Epistemology is a crucial philosophical concept for social scientists, which considers questions to do with the theory of knowledge. Essentially, the two positions of positivism and interpretivism two epistemologies. They differ in terms 0f their views about the status of different claims to knowledge and about how to judge knowledge claims. • "KD that"; KD how; acquaintance-KD)

12. Positivism Knowledge is based on phenomena that are directly observable (phenomenalism). The social world should be researched using the principles of natural science (such as experiments). Such a shared approach is often referred to as the unity of scientific method There is a stress on reliability and generalisability Explanation is achieved through the formulation of causal laws or law-like genralisations (nomothetic approach) Interpretivism Knowledge is based on understanding interpretations and meanings that are not directly observable The social world should be studied in its natural state (using participant observation and in-depth interviews) to understand naturally occurring behaviour There is a stress on valiadity Explanation is achieved through descriptions of social meanings/reasons and other dispositions to action (ideographic approach) • Positivism

13. Positivism Explanation is achieved through the formulation of causal laws or law-like genralisations (nomothetic approach) There is use of the hypothetico-deductive method, in which there is an emphasis on testing given theory Methods imply researcher/respondent detachment in the objective collection of data Analysis is based on the statistical testing of given theories Interpretivism There is use of the analytic-inductive method, in which theory is generated from the data Methods imply insider approach-participation in life and culture of respondent/closeness of respondent and researcher in the joint constitution of subjective data Analysis is based on the verbal description and observation of actions and situations form which theory evolves • Positivism

14. What is Literature • The literature on a particular subject of study is all the information that have been published about it. • A debate between a) Primary; b) Secondary Secondary: Books, Journal Articles; Published and Unpublished Reports e.g. Police Reports, Hospital Files; Electronic Information Primary: Interviews, Lectures, Conversations

15. Review is (Oxford Dictionary) • Assessment, Examination, Report, Study, Reassessment, Recapitulation, Reconsideration, Re-examination, Revision, Appreciation, Criticism, Evaluation, Judgement

16. Why we review literature • Because you would learn (positive and negative) ideas digesting through previous work in the particular area that enlarges your perspective • To uncover better writings style • Because direct personal experience can never be enough • So that you can effectively criticize what others have done. • To learn more about research methods and their application in practice

17. Why we read a book or literature • It's a way of avoiding social contacts • To learn about places you will never visit • It keeps you off of the streets • In order to spot areas which have not been researched.

18. Main Objectives of LR (Stevens et al in Blaxter et al. 1999 p11 • To give reasons why the topic is of sufficient important for it to be researched • To provide the reader with a brief up-to-date account and discussion of literature on the issues relevant to the topic • To provide a conceptual and theoretical context in which the topic for research can be situated • To discuss relevant research carried out on the same topic or similar topics

19. Typologies of LR (Bruce in Blaxter et al. 1999 p11 • As a list: the primary focus is on the listing rather than on the knowledge contained within the LR • As a Search: source materials act as an intermediary directing the researcher towards or providing an awareness of existing literature • As a Survey: the student's focus is on the literature, with his/her interest centred on the knowledge base of the discipline

20. Typologies of LR • As a Vehicle for Learning: the student's focus is beyond the literature and on his or her personal development • As a Research Facilitator: the impact of the literature moves beyond influencing the researcher to have an impact on the research project • As a report: the report is not only a synthesis of literature relevant to the research, it is a final representation of interaction with the literature

21. Use of LR in a Thesis Body of a thesis • Introduction • Literature Review • The settings • Main Text (two or three) • Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

22. Types of Scientific Research • Exploratory • Descriptive • Explanatory