Researching Society and Culture

1. Researching Society and Culture Week 3 Designing research: which methods

2. Structure of lecture • Key readings • Ontology and epistemology revisited • Objectivism, positivism and empiricism • Interpretivism/constructivism • Quantitative versus qualitative research methods • Mixed methods • Values in research

3. Key readings • Bryman, A. 2008, Social Research Methods. Oxford Uni Press. Oxford. (Chapter 1) CE • May, T. 2011. Social research (e-book) • Duneier chapter and Wilding article for seminar, plus download Pearson article.

4. What can we know and how can we know it? • Ontology – The ‘what’ (Being) refers to theories concerning what exists to be known. • Epistemology – the ‘how’(method) refers to theories about the ways in which we perceive and know our social world, including the tools used.

5. Ontological position 1: Objectivism • That there is an external, knowable reality out there that we can define, code, investigate and record. • This exists independently of the social actors and their interpretation of what is going on. • Linked to epistemological positions of positivism and empiricism.

6. Epistemological position 1: Positivism/empiricism • Advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the study of social reality. • Assumes neutrality of the researcher. • Can establish correlations/ cause and effect between variables. • Empiricist in that knowledge comes from sensory experience – what we can see, hear, touch etc.

7. Ontological position 2: constructionism/interpretivism • People are different from the phenomena studied by the natural sciences. • Social reality is constructed by the meanings and contexts of social actors. • These meanings are constantly changing and being revised by social actors.

8. Epistemological position 2: Interpretivism/constructivism • We cannot really know the social world, only how people name and interpret (construct) it. • Research studies the meanings, and interpretations of social actors. • Researchers themselves, of course, have interpretations and apply meanings to the social world they are studying.

9. Epistemological position 3: (Critical)Realism • Accepts that there is a reality out there which can be studied. • But, this reality is not necessarily directly ‘observable’, but is generated by other mechanisms; thus, domestic violence is generated by patriarchy.

10. What does all of this mean? • What we research and how we research it are all influenced by our ontological and epistemological positions. • But remember, we are also influenced by other considerations, e.g. our experiences and values.

11. Quantitative research • Emphasises quantification in the collection and analysis of data • Usually entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research (testing theories) • Practices and norms of the natural sciences • Social reality as external and objective

12. Qualitative research • Predominantly an inductive approach in which research generates theory • Rejects practices of natural science and positivism • Focus on how individuals interpret their social world • Views social reality as unstable and constantly changing, and as the creation of social actors

13. Strengths and weakness Quants Quals In depth understanding of people’s lives Can give a voice to oppressed groups and change the world But: Possible researcher bias, so not replicable Small scale, so not representative • Research and the data are statistically replicable • Are generally large scale projects, and so representative • ‘Scientific’ • BUT: • Does not really answer the why or how questions

14. Mixed methods • The previous discussion implies that quals and quants are incompatible. • But some researchers argue that it possible to combine – triangulation. • E.g. large scale survey and focus groups • But: only if relevant to the research question(s) • Some argue that it is not possible to mix different ontological and epistemological positions

15. Values in research • As researchers we bring our own values to our research. This impacts on: • 1) our choice of research area • 2) what our research questions are • 3) our choice of method • 4) research design and data collection methods • 5) the analysis and presentation of the data

16. Reflexivity • In order to deal with these issues we should ‘recognise and acknowledge that research cannot be value free’ (Bryman, A. 2008: 25) • So, we should forewarn our readers of our attitudes and positioning so that they can judge for themselves. • Especially prevelant in feminist research

17. What next? • For seminar: • Read one of Bryman (2008) or May (2011) • And read intro to Duneier (CE) and Wilding (online), and download Pearson article. • NEXT WEEK: QUANTITATIVE METHODS (1)