Transformations in Europe, 1500 - 1750

1. Transformations in Europe, 1500 - 1750

2. I. Culture and Ideas

3. A. Religious Reformation • Papacy – St. Peter’s Basilica • Indulgences • Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) • Salvation from faith in Jesus Christ – not works • Rejection of papal authority – Protestant Reformation • Bible, printing press • German support/nationalism

4. Religious Reformation Continued… • John Calvin (1509 – 1564) • Faith not enough, salvation a gift from God – “predestined” • Organization, lifestyle • Religious movements connected to political circumstances • Trent – Catholic Reformation • Jesuits • Wars of Religion

5. B. Traditional Thinking and Witch - Hunts • Folklore/magic • Christian teachings – miracles, devils, etc. • Natural events – supernatural causes • Lisbon – 1755 • Accused women and their fates… • Reformation’s focus on the Devil • Fear of independent women • Women’s sphere of influence

7. C. The Scientific Revolution • Influence of Greco – Roman sources/Bible • Aristotle – four elements and physics • Pythagoras • Scientific Revolution – observation • Nicholas Copernicus (1473 – 1543) – heliocentric universe • Tycho Braches and Johannes Kepler – elliptical orbits

8. The Scientific Revolution Continued… • Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) – telescope • Challenge to religious/traditional beliefs • Galileo’s view of God’s truth • Jesuits, Roman Inquisition, The Starry Messenger • Robert Boyle – chemistry • Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – common physics, law of gravity • Hostility of the church, challenges to authority

9. D. The Early Enlightenment • Laws of human behavior – Enlightenment • Resistance to Enlightenment thinkers • Reaction against religious violence • Appreciation of non – Western examples of governance/behavior • Optimistic about future of human behavior/institutions

10. II. Social and Economic Life

11. Population growth in London, Paris Bourgeoisie – work/lifestyle Netherlands – textile industry, used foreign raw materials, publishing endeavors Amsterdam – commercial fleets dominated overseas trade during 1600s Merchant ships – fluit, “East Indiaman” Dutch banks – investments, capital Cartography A. The Bourgeoisie

12. The Bourgeoisie continued… • Family connections/merchant colonies in European cities • Alliances with monarchies • Joint – stock companies • Stock exchanges • Canals • British/Dutch competition – English supremacy • Gentry – alliances with old nobility; exemption from taxes

13. B. Peasants and Laborers • Decline of serfdom/slavery in Western Europe – relation to the Americas • Challenges to peasants – Little Ice Age • Impact of new crops from Americas by 1700 • Exports of wheat • Deforestation (1709), impact on peasants • Migration to cities - no relief from poverty • Rebellions of the poor in Early Modern Europe – resentment against privileged/landowning classes, exemption from taxation

14. C. Women and the Family • Women lower than men but mitigated by class/wealth • Importance of a good marriage • Choice in marriage/reasons for age • Abandoned children • Solid education for sons – languages, business • Exclusion/participation of women in Renaissance, Scientific Rev., Enlightenment

15. III. Political Innovations

16. A. State Development • Political diversity • Holy Roman Empire – German • Charles V – Habsburg – united Christian Europe vs. Ottomans • French/German opposition • German Wars of Religion and the Peace of Augsburg (1555) • France, Spain, England strengthening central authority

18. B. Religious Policies • Spain/France – defended Catholicism (Spanish Inquisition) • French Wars of Religion – Henry of Navarre, Edict of Nantes • England – Henry VIII, Catherine of Aragon, support of Parliament to make English monarch head of Church of England • Disbanding of monasteries/church lands • Not as many reforms as English Puritans wanted

19. C. Monarchies in England and France • England – Charles I disbanded Parliament, needed help to gather taxes, Parliament wanted guarantees of rights – English Civil War in 1642 • Charles I executed, Oliver Cromwell instated, eventually Charles II restored • James II a Catholic threat • Queen Mary and William of Orange – Glorious Revolution of 1688 • English Bill of Rights 1689

20. Monarchies in England and France Continued… • Estates General • Monarchs sold appointments/efficient tax collection • Louis XIV – Palace of Versailles, kept political intrigues out of Paris • French model widely admired • John Lock (1632 – 1704) – disputed divine right of monarchs, authority from consent of the governed

21. D. Warfare and Diplomacy • Warfare common in Early Modern period • Expensive/destructive • Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648) • European armed forces much stronger – larger armies, centralized command structures, training, fortifications • Stalemates – navy • Henry VIII – investment in navy, influence of the Dutch, creation of Great Britain • Prevented Spain/France from uniting • Balance of power

23. E. Paying the Piper • Post 1600 – states needed more revenue for militaries • Alliances with rising commercial elite – needed space AND support • Spanish wars, religious expulsions, and aristocratic exemption from taxes • American gold/silver – inflation • Netherlands revolted against Spanish policies – 1648 achieved full independence

24. Paying the Piper Continued… • United Netherlands decentralized – excelled in trade, commercial interests • Rise of the English navy/merchant ships • English “financial revolution” – taxed aristocracy, collected taxes directly, central bank • France – some adjustments but stifled by aristocracy