Transformations in Europe

1. Transformations in Europe 1500–1750 Chapter 16

2. Culture and Ideas • Early Reformation • In 1500, the Catholic Church, benefiting from European prosperity, was building new _______, including a new Saint Peter’s ________ in Rome. Pope ___ __ raised money for the new basilica by authorizing the sale of indulgences. • The German monk ______ _____ challenged the pope on the issue of ______________ and other practices that he considered corrupt or not Christian. Luther began the __________ _____________, arguing that salvation could be achieved by _____ alone, that Christian belief could be based only on the Bible and on Christian tradition. • The Protestant leader ____ _____ formulated a different theological position in The Institutes of the Christian Religion. Calvin argued that salvation was God’s gift to those who were ___________ and that Christian congregations should be self-governing and stress simplicity in life and in worship. • The Protestant Reformation appealed not only to religious sentiments but also to _________ who disliked the _______-dominated Catholic Church and to peasants and urban workers who wanted to reject the religion of their masters. • The Catholic Church agreed on a number of internal reforms and a reaffirmation of fundamental Catholic beliefs in the Council of _____. These responses to the Protestant Reformation, along with the activities of the newly established Society of Jesus (the ______) comprise the “Catholic Reformation.” • The Protestant Reformation led to a number of ____ of religion, the last of them concluded in ______.

3. Culture and Ideas • Local Religion, Traditional Culture and Witch-Hunts • European concepts of the natural world were derived from both local religion and ____ customs. Most people believed that natural events could have ____natural causes. • Belief in the supernatural is vividly demonstrated in the witch-hunts of the late ___th and early ___th centuries. In the witch-hunts, over 100,000 people (__/__ of them women) were tried and about half of them ___________ on charges of witchcraft. • Reasons for the witch-hunts are many but at bottom was the tension between _____________ beliefs and new religious and political institutions. • The Scientific Revolution • European intellectuals derived their understanding of the natural world from the writings of the ______ and the ______. These writings suggested that everything on earth was reducible to four elements; that the ___, moon, planets, and _____ were so light and pure that they floated in crystalline spheres and rotated around the _____ in perfectly circular orbits. • The observations of Copernicus and other scientists, including __________, undermined this earth-centered model of the universe and led to the introduction of the Copernican ___-centered model.

4. Culture and Ideas • The Scientific Revolution cont… • The Copernican model was initially criticized and suppressed by ___________ leaders and by the __________ Church. Despite opposition, printed books spread these and other new scientific ideas among European intellectuals. • _____ ______’s discovery of the law of gravity showed how natural laws govern all physical objects. Newton’s discoveries led to the development of Newtonian physics. However, Newton and other scientists did not believe that their discoveries were in conflict with __________ belief. • The Early Enlightenment • The advances in scientific thought inspired European governments and groups of individuals to question the reasonableness of accepted practices in fields ranging from _____________ to laws, religions, and social hierarchies. This intellectual movement, which assumed that social behavior and institutions were governed by scientific laws, is called the ___________. • The Enlightenment thinkers were also influenced by the _______________ and by accounts of other cultures (including Jesuit accounts of _____). • The new scientific methods provided the enlightened thinkers with a model for changing __________ society. These thinkers were not a homogeneous group; they drew inspiration from disparate sources and espoused a variety of agendas. Most were optimistic that the application of ______ would lead to _____ progress. • The ideas of the Enlightenment aroused opposition from many ___________ rulers and from ______, but the ________ ____ made possible the survival and dissemination of new ideas.

5. Social and Economic Life • The Bourgeoisie • Europe’s ______ experienced spectacular growth between 1500 and 1700. • The wealthy urban bourgeoisie thrived on manufacturing, finance, and especially _____, including the profitable trade in _____. • ____________’s growth, built on trade and finance, exemplifies the power of ___th-century bourgeoisie enterprise. • The bourgeoisie forged mutually beneficial relationships with the __________ and built extensive family and ethnic ________ to facilitate trade between different parts of the _____. • Partnerships between merchants and governments led to the development of _____-_____ companies and _____ exchanges. Governments also played a key role in the improvement of Europe’s ____________ infrastructure. • The Anglo-Dutch ____ of the seventeenth century provide evidence of the growing importance of trade in _____________ affairs. • The bourgeois gentry gradually increased their ownership of ____; many entered the ranks of the nobility by _________ into noble families or by __________ titles of nobility.

6. Social and Economic Life • Peasants and Laborers • While _______ declined and disappeared in Western Europe, it gained new prominence in ________ Europe. • African ______, working in the Americas, contributed greatly to Europe’s economy. • It is possible that the condition of the average person in Western Europe declined between 1500 and 1700. • New World _____ helped Western European peasants avoid __________. • High consumption of ____ for heating, cooking, construction, shipbuilding, and industrial uses led to severe _____________ in Europe in the late ___th and early ___th centuries. Shortages drove the ____ of wood up.

7. Social and Economic Life • Peasants and Laborers cont… • As the price of wood rose, Europeans began to use ____ instead of wood. Some efforts were also made to conserve forests and to _____ trees, particularly to provide wood for _____ vessels. • The urban poor consisted of “____________ poor” (permanent residents) and large numbers of “________ poor”—migrants, peddlers, beggars, and criminals. • Women and the Family • Women’s ______ and work were closely tied to that of their ____________ and families. • Common people in early modern Europe married relatively ____ until young men could make a ______ on their own and young women could work enough to earn their _______. The young people of the bourgeois class also married late partly because men delayed marriage until after finishing their _________. Late marriage enabled young couples to be independent of their _______; it also helped to keep the birth rate ___. • Bourgeois parents put great emphasis on _____________ and promoted the establishment of __________. • Most schools, professions, and guilds barred _______ from participation.

8. Political Innovations • State Development • Between 1516 and 1519, _______ of ____________, descendant of the Austrian ________ family, inherited the thrones of Castile and Aragon, with their colonial empires; the Austrian Habsburg possessions; and the position of ____ _____ _______. Charles was able to forge a coalition to defeat the Ottomans at the gates of ______ in 1529, but he was unable to unify his many territorial possessions. • ________ German princes rebelled against the French-speaking Catholic Charles, seizing church lands and giving rise to the German Wars of ________. When Charles abdicated the throne, Spain went to his son ______ while a weakened Holy Roman Empire went to his brother _____________. • Meanwhile, the rulers of _____, France, and ________ pursued their own efforts at political unification. • Monarchies in England and France • In England, a conflict between ___________ and the ____ led to a civil war and the establishment of a Puritan republic under ______ ________. After the Stuart line was restored, Parliament enforced its will on the monarchy when it drove King James II from the throne in the ________ __________ of 1688 and forced his successors, William and Mary, to sign a document, the ____ __ ______, to limit the power of the crown. • In France, the Bourbon kings were able to circumvent the representative assembly known as the _______ ______ and develop an absolutist style of government. _____ ___’s finance minister Colbert was able to increase revenue through more efficient ___ collection and by promoting economic growth, while Louis entertained and controlled the French nobility by requiring them to attend his court at ____________.

9. Political Innovations • Warfare and Diplomacy • Constant warfare in early modern Europe led to a ________ revolution in which cannon, ________, and commoner foot soldiers became the mainstays of European armies. Armies ____ in size, and most European states maintained standing armies (except _______, which maintained a standing navy). • To manage the large standing armies and to use the troops more effectively in battle, Europeans devised new _______ structures, ______ techniques, and __________ drills. • Developments in _____ technology during this period included warships with multiple tiers of ______ and four-wheel cannon ________ that made ________easier. England took the lead in the development of new naval technology, as was demonstrated when the English Royal Navy defeated Spain’s Catholic ______ in 1588, signaling an end to Spain’s military dominance in __________. • With the defeat of ______, France rose as the strongest power on continental Europe, while its rival England held superiority in naval power. During the War of the Spanish __________, England, allied with Austria and Prussia, was able to prevent the French house of _______ from taking over the Spanish throne. • With the War of the Spanish Succession, the four powers of Europe—France, Britain, Austria, and Russia—were able to maintain a ________ of _____ that prevented any ___ power from becoming too strong for about two centuries.

10. Political Innovations • Paying the Piper • The rulers of European states needed to raise new revenue to pay the heavy _____ of their wars; the most successful made profitable ____________ with commercial elites. The Spanish, however, undermined their economy by driving out ____, Protestants, and the descendants of _______ so that the bullion they gained from their American empire was spent on payments to _________ and for manufactured goods and food. • The northern provinces of the ____________ wrested their autonomy from Spain and became a dominant commercial power. The United Provinces of the Free Netherlands and particularly the province of _______ favored commercial interests, craftspeople, and manufacturing enterprises, and __________ became a major center of finance and shipping. • After 1650, _______ used its naval power to break Dutch dominance in overseas trade. The English government also improved its financial position by collecting taxes directly and by creating a ______ ____. • The French government streamlined tax collection, used protective _______ to promote domestic industries, and improved its __________ network. The French were not, however, able to introduce direct tax collection, tax the land of ______, or secure low-cost _____.

11. Conclusion • The religious __________ combined with the _________ Revolution led the way for the _______________, an age of reason, and the movement to apply newly discovered _____ laws to social behavior. • Foreign and domestic _____ spawned rapid growth in European ______ and the rise of a wealthy commercial class, with _________ in the Netherlands the most vivid example. Agricultural improvements increased production but the Little ___ Age and increased mining of _______ caused more difficulties for the poor. • The ____ _____ Empire declined in strength from religious fragmentation while ______ and ______ increased centralized power. The _______ increased naval power and established direct taxation and a central bank, making the nation stronger financially than other _______ powers.