20 th Century U.S. History Since World War II

1. 20th Century U.S. History Since World War II Unit 3 – Eisenhower Administration (1953-1961)

2. “Modern Republicanism” • When Eisenhower took office, he wanted to limit the role of the presidential branch • He wanted to bring back a better balance between the branches • He believed that the government should “be conservative when it comes to money, liberal when it comes to human beings” • As for conservative spending, he wanted to cut the role of government in the economy

3. “Modern Republicanism” • To do this, he wanted to: • Cut taxes • Cut down the levels of funding • Balance the budget after years of deficit spending • Help encourage business growth • Even though he promoted strong business, the economic growth of the country slowed dramatically • It had been 4.3% between 1947 and 1952 and dropped to 2.5% between 1953 and 1960 • There were also three recessions during Ike’s two terms

4. Nettie Hunt and daughter on steps of U.S. Supreme Court after the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision

5. Start of the Civil Rights Movement • In the postwar era, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other groups sought to end segregation in the U.S. • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka(May 1954) • Supreme Court ruled public school segregation illegal • It stated that the “separate but equal” ruling put forth by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was unconstitutional • However, many southern schools did not follow the ruling • Many became frustrated with the slow process of legally gaining more rights • They instead turned to acts of civil disobedience • These included mass sit-ins, boycotts, and “freedom rides” • All of them were designed to be non-violent

6. Rosa Parks on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama

7. Start of the Civil Rights Movement • On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested after she refused to sit at the back of a Montgomery, Alabama bus • Sparked a grassroots civil rights movement in the south • MLK Jr. organized a citywide bus boycott in response • The boycott lasted one year • Supreme Court that forced the city to desegregate its buses • Southern resistance to civil rights increased • State legislatures made it more difficult for African Americans to vote by instituting poll taxes and literacy tests • The NAACP was outlawed in several states • Local citizens organized councils to implement economic reprisals against blacks who tried to attend white schools or vote

8. Start of the Civil Rights Movement • On March 12, 1956, the southern members of Congress issued the “Declaration of Constitutional Principles” • It stated that the federal government did not have the power to force desegregation on the states • Also known as the “Southern Manifesto,” it was signed by 101 Congressmen • Eisenhower himself did not openly push for desegregation • Instead, he quietly worked towards desegregation of federal offices in the south

9. Start of the Civil Rights Movement • In January 1957, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was formed by black religious leaders including Martin Luther King Jr. • They promoted non-violent civil disobedience • In South Carolina, Citizenship Schools were set up to teach blacks how to read and write to pass the voting tests

10. The Little Rock Nine being escorted by members of the 101st Airborne Division

11. The Little Rock Nine • In 1955, the Little Rock Board of Education agreed to the “Blossom Plan” • This was to desegregate the school system starting in September 1957 • This was done in accordance to Brown • It was unanimously approved by the board • In 1957, nine black students were selected to attend the Little Rock Central High • On September 2, 1957, Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard prevent these students from entering the school

12. The Little Rock Nine • Eisenhower met with Faubus a week later to ask him abide by Brown • On September 20, a federal judge ruled that Faubus illegally using the national guard • Local police were to be used instead to keep the peace • On September 23, the police were able to successfully get the students inside the school • When news got out of this, over 1,000 people confronted the police now outside of the school • The police had to evacuate the nine students • On September 25, members of the 101st Airborne escort the students to school • The Arkansas National Guard is placed under federal control

13. Little Rock Crisis (1957)

14. Senator Joe McCarthy

15. Joe McCarthy • Joe McCarthy was a senator from Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957 • He is best known for leading the battle against domestic communists during the early 1950s • He originally saw the “Communist question” as a rallying point for the Republican party • Wheeling Speech (February 1950) • Given in front of the Wheeling, West Virginia Women’s Club • “I have here in my hand a list of 205 that were known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping the policy of the State Department” • Later on this list was pared down to 57 names

16. McCarthyism • From 1950 to 1954, McCarthy attacked numerous political figures, accusing them of being communists • He used the press and television as part of his anti-communist campaigns • Anybody who spoke out against him was branded a communist • This worked because the American fear of communism grew tremendously during this time period • After the 1952 elections, McCarthy became the chairman of the Senate Committee on Government Operations • Part of this was the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations • McCarthy used this subcommittee to continue on with his accusations and investigations

17. Army-McCarthy Hearings • In 1953, McCarthy and his subcommittee began to investigate the army • This included a number of high-ranking officers • On March 11, 1954, the army then accused McCarthy of pressuring the army to give preferential treatment to a former aid who had been drafted • McCarthy’s chief counsel, Roy Cohn, had also been accused • McCarthy believed this accusation was made in retaliation for his investigations • A special Senate committee was put together to investigate the claims

18. Army-McCarthy Hearings • The Army-McCarthy Hearings began in April 1954 and lasted 36 days • It was televised across the country • The committee found that McCarthy had done nothing improper • The televised hearings did change American perception of McCarthy • The American public saw McCarthy as a lying, reckless bully • After these hearings, McCarthy’s popularity dropped dramatically

19. Election of 1956

20. Election of 1956 • During the Republican National Convention in August 1956, Eisenhower was unchallenged in gaining the party’s nomination • There had been some doubts the previous year as he suffered a heart attack and surgery for ileitus (inflamed small intestine) but had been cleared by his doctors • Nixon was once again approved as his running mate • The Democrats once again appointed Adlai Stevenson as their nominee • Many Democrats did not seek nomination as Eisenhower’s popularity was so high at the time

21. Election of 1956 • Eisenhower ran his campaign on the successes of the first four years of his administration • This included ending the Korean War • Stevenson focused his attacks on Eisenhower’s expansion of the military and nuclear weapons program • He called for a reduction in military spending • Eisenhower received 57.4% of the votes and 457 electoral votes • Stevenson only received 42% and 73 respectively • One “faithless elector” voted for Walter B. Jones instead of Stevenson

22. 1956 Election Results

23. “Joe-4”

24. The H-Bomb • During Eisenhower’s administration, one of the key issues with the atomic weapons program was to develop a viable delivery system • While “Ivy Mike” was the first thermonuclear device tested, it was too large to transport via plane or missile • On August 12, 1953, the Soviet Union exploded its first thermonuclear device, “Joe-4” • It technically was not a “true” hydrogen bomb and was not as powerful as the ones designed by the U.S. • However, what made it so dangerous that the bomb was small enough that it could be transported via plane

25. The H-Bomb • The U.S. followed up with its “Castle Bravo” test on March 1, 1954 • The testing took place on the Bikini Atoll • Scientists made an error in calculations for the bomb so instead of being a 5 megaton explosion, it created a 14.8 megaton one • It was the largest nuclear device exploded by the U.S. • Japanese fishermen on the Fukuryu Maru were 90 miles off the coast of Bikini at the time of the test and died of radiation poisoning

26. Castle Bravo test (March 1, 1954)

27. Sputnik and the Start of the “Space Race”

28. The “Space Race” • In 1952, the International Council of Scientific Unions named the International Geophysical Year (IGY) • It was going to be held from July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958 • During this time the sun’s activity was going to be at an 11-year high so scientists were encouraged to examine “global geophysical activities” • On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. would participate in the IGY by launching an artificial satellite into orbit • The project became known as “Vanguard”

29. The “Space Race” • On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite, into orbit • The U.S. was completely off-guard by this launch • Vanguard was still in its developmental stage with scientists still trying to develop the first stage of the rocket launcher • Many were shocked that the Soviets got their satellite up first since the U.S. had been considered the leader in space technology • It marks the beginning of the “space race” between the U.S. and the Soviets

30. The “Space Race” • The Soviets then quickly followed up with the launch of Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957 • This satellite carried the first ever live passenger, a dog named Laika • Panicked by the Soviets achievements, the U.S. attempted to launch Vanguard TV-3 even though it was not ready • On December 6th, the launch took place but the engine injectors failed • The rocket only rose about four feet, then collapsed back to the ground and exploded

31. Vanguard explosion • (Dec. 6, 1957)

32. The “Space Race” • In February 1958, Eisenhower created the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) • Part of the Department of Defense, ARPA was designed to oversee research and development of new technologies for the military • Its focus in its early years was not just on the “space race” but on the development of ballistic missile defense and the detection of nuclear tests • On March 17th, Vanguard 1 was successfully launched into orbit • There were four other failed tests afterwards before Vanguard 2 was successfully launched on February 17, 1959

33. The “Space Race” • On July 29, 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Act was signed into law • It created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) which was responsible for the U.S. space program • It also created the National Aeronautics and Space Council which would advise the president on matters regarding the space program • In 1959, Congress expanded funding to the National Science foundation by almost $100 million • It was now receiving $134 million a year

34. The “Space Race” • The U.S. also began the Polaris program • This was a research and development program to design submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) • Ballistic missiles are designed as a delivery system for nuclear weapons • The program began in December 1956 with a contract given to Lockheed to develop the missile • On July 20, 1960, the first successful underwater launch of the Polaris A1 took place from the U.S.S. George Washington • On May 6, 1962, a Polaris A1 was successfully launched into the Pacific with a live nuclear warhead • This strategic missile launch was the only full live test done by the U.S.

35. Bringing an End to the Korean War

36. Korean War • In March 1953, the biggest turning point of the Korean War occurred: Stalin died • This left the Chinese with uncertainties about continued Soviet support • In May, Eisenhower stated that if negotiations for a peace settlement failed, the U.S. would seek a “military solution” • This implied a nuclear attack • On July 27, 1953, a cease-fire was put in place • The Numbers: • 142,000 casualties total with 33,000 of those in combat • 17,000 UN forces died • Around 2 million Koreans died

37. Effects of the Korean War • U.S. military spending increased from $13 billion to $47 billion between 1950 and 1953 • This followed the guidelines set by NSC-68 • With the war, the U.S. started a more aggressive policy in Asia • A key component was the U.S. signing a peace treaty with Japan in September 1951 • This treaty was designed to have Japan act as balancing measure for the U.S. in the Pacific • The U.S. increased aid to France when Ho Chi Minh, leader of the anti-French movement in Vietnam, accepted aid from China and the Soviets

38. Effects of the Korean War • The war prompted the U.S. to start plans to rearm West Germany • This was the first war that had African Americans integrated in previously all-white units • Their success on the front led to the acceptance of fully integrated units • North and South Korea are still divided along the 38th parallel • Neither side had accepted the peace agreement put forth by the U.S. but they did sign a non-aggression pact in 1991

39. Crossing the 38th Parallel

40. Containment in the 1950’s • Eisenhower had to reassess Truman’s containment policy • There was public criticism that the previous administration had not done enough to contain communism • Secretary of State John Foster Dulles believed that it was not enough to contain communism • He believed that the U.S. should promote democracy and liberate countries from Soviet influence • Eisenhower also spoke out against the Soviets • However, he was not so willing to help liberate Soviet satellites • He believed that getting involved would lead to a greater conflict • Throughout his two terms, the policy of containment remained the same as it had under Truman

41. Uprising in East Germany (1953)

42. Uprising in East Germany • On June 17, 1953, a number of workers’ riots broke out throughout East Germany • Started when the Soviets increased production quotas by 10 • The rebellion then evolved into a political movement • Many called for not only workplace reforms but political ones as well, including free elections • The Soviets responded by sending in tanks and declaring a state of emergency • Eisenhower did not want the U.S. to intervene for fear of starting a third world war • Organized a food distribution program to East Berlin • It would not only help the striking workers but also score brownie points for the U.S.

43. Nikita Khrushchev • First Secretary of the Communist Party (1953-1964)

44. “Khrushchev Thaw” • In September 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became Secretary of the Communist Party • Control over the Soviet Union was divided between him and Georgi Malekov until 1955 • In 1955, he placed Nikolai Bulganin as the Soviet Premier • Khrushchev believed that Stalin had been too tight on controls in the eastern bloc countries • He believed that their relationship should be one of cooperation rather than subjugation

45. “Khrushchev Thaw” • On February 26, 1956, Khrushchev denounced the harsh measures in place during Stalin’s regime in a secret speech to the Communist Party • The report was called On the Personality Cult and its Consequences • On May 14, 1955, the Soviet Union and the European Socialist countries signed the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance • It was in response to the creation of NATO

46. NATO v. Warsaw Pact

47. Hungary 1956

48. Hungarian Revolution of 1956 • Hungary suffered under political and economic repression after World War II • In July 1956, Hungarians replaced the old Stalin-like MátyásRákosi • This was in response to Khrushchev's “secret speech” • He was replaced with a more “liberal” leader • Over the next few months, people began to speak out for more freedoms and political reforms • On October 23, 1956, over 200,000 marched in Budapest • It was in sympathy to the Polish who had gained some political reform after their uprising • The demonstration started out mostly a peaceful event • They did tear down the 30 foot tall statue of Stalin

49. Hungarian Revolution of 1956 • When Hungarian police began shooting tear gas into the crowds, the demonstration became violent • The next day, Soviet troops entered the city in an attempt to seize control • Many used Molotov Cocktails against the Soviet forces as their only effect weapon against the Soviet tanks • The rebels were able to force Soviet troops out of the city by October 30 • A new government was set up under Imre Nagy, who was considered a more “moderate” communist • Nagy wanted to push through numerous reforms, including withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact

50. Hungarian Revolution of 1956 • Eisenhower said “I feel with the Hungarian people” • Even Secretary of State John Dulles told the Hungarian people “To all those suffering under communist slavery, let us say you can count on us” • Both of these implied that the U.S. would be willing to help the new government • Khrushchev considered the loss of Hungary from the Pact too great a threat to Soviet interests • On November 1, 1956, Soviet forces invaded Hungary en masse to crush the rebellion • They re-entered Budapest on November 4