The Sophists: Protagoras

1. The Sophists: Protagoras

2. 5th century Athens • 1st “secular” culture in which arts, sciences and political concerns dominate society • Religion still important, but increasingly questioned throughout the century • Imperial Democracy 462-405 including Peloponnesian War 433-405 • “Greek Enlightenment” tragic and comic theater, Sophists, Socrates

4. Pericles of Athens (495-428) • Co-founder of “Direct Democracy” in 462 • “President” of Athens, 445-428 BC. • Creator of Athenian naval empire • Built Acropolis • Central political figure in ‘new thinking’ of sophistic era

5. Ode to Man(Sophocles’ Antigone) • Many things are awesome, but none more so than man… • Who carves the Earth with iron, planting his seed -- sallies forth in crafted ships across the infinite Sea -- yokes the stallion and fearsome bull to serve him … • Shapes swift words that build Cities… • Rising high above his nature, he sometimes distains Piety and Law. • Let not such a man beside thy hearth…let not your mind turn toward such Pride…

6. FAMOUS SOPHISTS • Protagoras: relativist, agnostic • Gorgias: rhetorician • Thrasymachus: rhetorician, “realist” • Antiphon rhetorician, political strategist, • Critias: atheist, leader of Thirty Tyrants • Prodicus: grammarian, theorist of religion • Hippias: polymath

8. Protagoras “Man is the measure of all things; of the things that are, that and how they are; of the things that are not, that and how they are not.”

9. Protagoras: 4 Doctrines • Relativity of knowledge • Relativity of ethics • Sophistry and democracy • Agnosticism re: the Gods

10. 1. Relativity of Knowledge a. Perception: no ‘objectivity’ of sensible things & properties, vs. “Myth of the Given” b. Science: no universality/necessity of laws c. Metaphysics: no metaphysical realism(“DissoiLogoi”/ “Opposing arguments”)

11. a. Perceptual Relativity • Perceptual realists • Objective properties of sense-objects, e.g. “wind is hot” • Perceptual anti-realists • Subjective experience of perceiver = prior to all knowledge-claims • Empirical ‘truth’ = contingent, particular • Measure of empirical truth = intersubjective agreement; no objective method of verification • ‘Reality’ is not given; it is interpreted Question: How would Protagoras answer argument that thermometer gives us an objective reading of the temperature?

12. b. Protagoras on Science • Natural science • Intersubjective agreement re: ‘facts’ • Laws = generalizations from limited experience • Therefore no universal, necessary laws of nature • Mathematical science knowledge “Neither are perceptible lines such as the geometer speaks of, as Protagoras said in his refutation of the geometers, for a hoop does not touch a straight edge at a point.” • This knowledge also from sense-perception, generalization • Actual world does not conform to pure mathematics or logic • Concepts are thought differently by different subjects Does Protagoras confuse the psychology of knowledge with the logic of knowledge (epistemology)?

13. c. Metaphysics • Metaphysical realism: objective truth exists re: reality (even if we don’t know it) • Agreed upon by all Presocratics, whether materialists or idealists, monists or pluralists • Metaphysical anti-realism: DissoiLogoi: there are always conflicting alternative arguments • All knowledge = mind-dependent “There are no facts; only interpretations.” Problems: • Principle of Non-Contradiction. • Does the relativist contradict himself?

14. ‘Knowledge’ and ‘Reality’ In terms of our Presocratic model, Protagoras holds: Reality seems to be ‘given’ (nature, morality, etc.) ‘Reality’ is the world of appearances, behaviors, values / \ as interpreted and governed by / \ Dominant intersubjectivebeliefs formed by logos = relative to different individuals/communities (there are always conflicting beliefs, but there is no objective, non-perspectival standpoint from which to evaluate them—no ‘view from nowhere’)

15. 2. Relativity of Ethics “King Darius explained to the Greeks that there is no universal morality, but that ‘Custom is King over all.’” --Herodotus Is it morally wrong? • Taking drugs? • Homosexuality? • Polygamy? • Communism? • Slavery or wars of conquest? • Religious rule?

16. Arguments Ethical Universalism • “moral abyss” arg • reductionism arg • “basic morals” arg • examples: murder, slavery, polygamy Ethical Relativity • ethical diversity arg • “prove it!” arg • “basic morals” arg? • examples don’t work?

17. 3. Sophistry and democracy Protagoras asserts relativism, but also • Implies an “open” society better than authoritarian society • Implies “Sophist” can persuade people of what is ‘wiser’ Does Protagoras contradict himself? • If democracies encourage reason, are they better? • If Sophist persuades of what is ‘wiser’ is then also ‘better’?

18. 4. Sophistic Critique of Religion Prodicus (scientific-reductionist view): • “The ancients considered as gods the sun and moon, rivers, springs, and in general all things that assist our life, just as the Egyptians deify the Nile.” Critias (first atheist): • “A wise and clever man … invented the Gods, saying that even if you plan evil deeds in secret, you will not escape their eye and retribution…” Protagoras (agnostic, “secular” view): • “As for the gods, I know nothing of their existence or non-existence or qualities. The subject is too obscure, and human life is too short.”

19. Conflicting Philosophies