CHAPTER 11: Individuals and Families of Asian Descent

1. CHAPTER 11:Individuals and Families of Asian Descent Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach Second Edition Danica G. Hays and Bradley T. Erford

2. Asian American History • Large-scale arrival of Chinese laborers in the mid-1800s as the start of immigration among Asian ethnic groups • “push” and “pull” immigration factors • Development of Chinatowns • Anti-Asian violence • Asian American as a recent phenomenon

3. Asian American History • Institutional & legislative discrimination: • Anti-miscegenation codes, housing restrictions, educational limitations to ethnic-specific business taxes, anti-naturalization & anti-immigration laws • 1942 incarceration of 120,000 Japanese Americans (62% were U.S. citizens) • Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 • One million Southeast Asians fleeing Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos after 1975 • Between 2000 and 2010, the Asian population in American grew faster than any other major race group

4. Contemporary Forms of Discrimination • Asian Americans still encounter forms of institutional racism • Examples: “English-only” language initiatives, income-to-education disparities, glass ceiling effects in career advancement • Individual racism • Differential treatment, verbal insults, racial slurs, physical harassment, vandalism, & in some cases homicide • Stereotypes • Reduced to one-dimensional caricatures • “Perpetual foreigner” or “model minority” • Second-class status

5. Asian American Heterogeneity • 43 distinct Asian groups from 20 countries of origin with diverse immigration histories • Immigration patterns may have implications for their clients’ understanding of & adaptation to U.S. cultural norms • Heterogeneity among Asian communities may have implications for counseling • Impact of language proficiency, immigration history, & educational level

6. Family • Definition of family/kinship for Asian Americans • Collectivism • Filial piety • Common for adult children to reside with their parents until & even after marriage • “Saving face” & protecting honor of the family • Parenting tends to be authoritarian & directive

7. Gender Roles • Socialized primarily within a patriarchal society • Specific gender roles & communication rules set by the family • Education is seen as a marketable tool in marriage for women • Within-group differences exist • Gender roles and responsibilities are clearly prescribed and based on one’s authority status in the family and social hierarchy

8. Interpersonal Relationships • Maintaining harmony governs interpersonal relationships • Nondirective, nonconfrontational, & silent are considered virtues • Moderation in behaviors is valued through self-restraint & self-control • Not extremely emotionally demonstrative in relationships • Humility in deeds & actions is seen as maintaining respect & dignity in relationships

9. Intimacy & Marriage • Youth are traditionally not encouraged to date • Parents & extended family play an important role in choosing a mate for their children through social networks • Marriage is considered a union of two families, however, marriage based on love and mutual compatibility has increasingly become a norm • Asian Americans traditionally tend to be modest regarding their sexuality & nondemonstrative in their sexual & physical affection • Divorce and interracial marriages are not common, but both are on the rise

10. Education • Asian Americans have a high regard for learning • Academic achievement & a successful career are highly valued & indicative of a good family upbringing • Pressure to spend time studying at the expense of other curricular activities • Pressure to obtain certain jobs (science-related or technical) to ensure occupational and financial security as minority members within the U.S. • Viable means of upward mobility - a concept they refer to as relative functionalism

11. Religion • Depending on the geographical region, different religious teachings serve as important spiritual philosophies guiding Asian American lives • Majority of Asian communities believe in fate, rebirth, and an afterlife • Pain/stress & pleasure are essential to one’s existence & a natural part of a life long process • Religious philosophies influence perspectives on life, health, & illness • Places of worship & religious figures may be key sources of support during times of difficulties

12. Death & Dying • Death is a communal affair among several Asian groups • Burials & cremation ceremonies are traditionally performed by the males in the family & elders are often consulted in performing rites • These rituals greatly affect the family & their perceptions of the deceased • Hmong beliefs

13. Immigration, Enculturation, & Acculturation • Factors known to mediate Asian American adaptation to the U.S. society: • Reason for immigration, the age at immigration, language abilities, past & present exposure to Western cultures, immigration status, socioeconomic status, professional status, ethnic pride, & the length of stay in the U.S. • Enculturation - socialization within one’s own ethnic cultural values, attitudes, & behaviors, while acculturation occurs within the context of contact with the dominant culture

14. Ethnicity & Race • The process of ethnic identification begins at a very young age with family playing a significant role in this socialization process • Cultural frame switching = different aspects of identity may be activated based on different contexts. • Long history of racism and discrimination in the form of denial of land ownership and citizenship, anti-miscegenation laws, racial profiling, targets of racial slurs and violence, internment camps.

15. Ethnicity & Race Continued • Factors that mask the negative effects of discrimination on Asian Americans: • minority myth. • tendency to dichotomize racism as a Black-White issue. • lack of racial socialization & a language to speak to these issues among new immigrants. • related racial politics of success & economics. • Greater awareness of discrimination within this community since 9/11.

16. Gender Roles • Traditional Asian cultures suggest clear & stringent gender roles • Confucianism & Hinduism see masculine & feminine characteristics intrinsic & complementary to each other • Men seem to experience fewer expectations in relation to sexual behaviors & intimacy • Women experience greater community censures related to gender roles & intimacy issues • Stereotyped images of women as mail-order brides and dragon ladies has led to sexual exploitation and objectification of women • Role of immigration on gender roles within the family

17. Sexuality & Sexual Identity • Attitudes & openness to sexual issues are displayed through the arts, literature, religion, history, & philosophy • Asian cultural norms have become more restrictive & place a strong emphasis on silence surrounding issues of sexuality • Asian Americans perceive homosexuality as a Western concept; seen as a “White disease” • Acculturation, exposure to U.S. values, & religion may play an important role in more positive attitudes toward sexuality & sexual identity issues

18. General Mental Health Issues • Limitations of epidemiological studies for Asian American groups • Racism • Related to lower levels of psychological well-being for Asian Americans • Influences self-esteem, depression, race-related stress, drug use, body image, PTSD, HIV risk behaviors, and chronic health conditions • Perceived discrimination is also associated with an underutilization of both health and mental health care services

19. General Mental Health Issues Cont. • Depression • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) • Domestic Violence • Anxiety • Schizophrenia

20. Help Seeking & Coping • Help seeking may be influenced by Asian values norms & worldview • Utilization rates: • Three times less likely than their White counterparts to use mental health services • U.S. born Asian Americans more likely to see a mental health provider than foreign-born Asian Americans • When Asian Americans did seek help, they were noted to prematurely terminate psychotherapy treatment • The more acculturated and the greater the English language proficiency, the higher likelihood of seeking mental health services

21. Help Seeking & Coping Cont. • Attitudes & Barriers in Help-Seeking • Lack of knowledge about Western mental health treatment & misconceptions about professional counseling • May be closely related to immigration history, length of stay in the U.S., levels of acculturation, gender, age, & history of previous treatment • Limited language proficiency & client-counselor ethnic matching • Cultural values & views of mental health • Cultural factors influence perceptions of symptoms or causes of a disorder, & the effectiveness of interventions

22. Help Seeking & Coping Cont. • Mind & body are seen as inseparable in the Asian culture • Holistic emphasis on health & a spiritually guided life • Mind-body harmony – Tai Chi, yoga, Qi-gong, acupuncture, therapeutic massage. • Nutrition is another popular means of restoring health – herbal medicine or specific foods • Support from family members and social networks that are ethnically and racially similar • Conflict between values endorsed by the Western mental health systems & Asian values • Ease of access to services either due to transportation or location, or familial obligations

23. Guidelines for Counseling Clients of Asian Descent • Education about counseling & the utility of mental health services • Counselor self-assessment • Counseling Process • Within-session interactions & factors that influence the dynamics in counseling • Overt & covert contributions from the counselor, the client, & the interactional dynamics • Asian Americans may be deferential to people in authority or may expect the counselor to provide advice • Developing a relationship with your client is the most important factor in creating a trusting environment

24. Guidelines for Counseling Clients of Asian Descent Cont. • Conceptualization of the Problem • It is important to align the conceptualization of the problem to the multiple contexts in which individuals exist • Counselors should recognize the psychological significance of immigration • Exploring the negotiation between education & class, ethnic & racial identities, gender & sexual identities, & gaining in awareness of the shifts & variations in experiences

25. Guidelines for Counseling Clients of Asian Descent Cont. • Intervention • Asian Americans typically prefer an authoritarian, directive, & structured approach to treatment • Because of the significant role families play, family therapy might be an appropriate intervention • To prevent stereotyping or overgeneralizing, it is essential to assess individual differences that exist within & across generations & ethnic groups • Specific needs & adjustment issues of American-born Asians can be quite different from those of foreign-born Asians • Voluntary Asian immigrants’ needs & adjustments can be different from non-voluntary immigrants or refugees from Asia

26. Guidelines for Counseling Clients of Asian Descent Cont. • Counselors should: • Develop a range of treatment modalities for working with Asian communities • Assess the problem to determine if it is individual, systemic, environmental, or a combination of these • Consider the application of traditional Western modalities on Asian Americans • Factor alternative healing approaches into counseling • Develop outreach & non-clinical visibility

27. Responsibility • Counselors should: • Challenge minority myth for Asian Americans • Assess counseling interventions’ effect on the individual and the community • Be conscious of academic pressures Asian American youth face • Examine the role of external forces on Asian American lives • Challenge oppression and discriminatory behaviors that occur at individual, cultural, and systemic levels • Be cognizant of social and personal costs to Asian Americans of acculturation and alliances to different identities