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Chapter 21 – The Enlightenment and Revolutions. 1550-1800. Lesson 1 – The Scientific Revolution. Causes of the Scientific Revolution Medieval “natural philosophers” relied on Latin – new Renaissance thinkers also drew on ancient Greek philosophers, expanding knowledge
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Causes of the Scientific Revolution Medieval “natural philosophers” relied on Latin – new Renaissance thinkers also drew on ancient Greek philosophers, expanding knowledge Careful observation and accurate measurements stimulated scientific activity New instruments – telescope, microscope, printing press Use of mathematics led to advancements in science, navigation, military sciences and geography Mathematicians also led the way on new ideas on the universe
Scientific Breakthroughs – The Ptolemaic System Medieval philosophers used Ptolemy, Aristotle and Christian thinkers to create a geocentric model. Earth is at the center, other orbs rotate around it. Beyond the spheres is Heaven – God is at the end of the universe and humans at its center. Ptolemaic System Ptolemy (90-168)
Scientific Breakthroughs – Copernicus and Kepler Polish astronomer NicolausCopernicus suggested a heliocentric model for the universe in 1543. He also posited the idea of the moon revolving around the earth and the earth spinning on an axis. Later, German astronomer JohannesKepler refined Copernicus’ theory by confirming it but correcting that the orbits of the planets were elliptical, not circular (Kepler’s First Law). Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Scientific Breakthroughs – Galileo’s Discoveries In his The Starry Messenger (1610), Galileo Galilei concluded that the earth is made of the same stuff as the moon. He also confirmed Copernicus’ heliocentric model. The Church came after him, demanding he recant his position as it threatened the position of man and God in the universe. While he recanted under pressure, most astronomers by Galileo’s time had accepted the newer model of the universe. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Scientific Breakthroughs – Newton’s View of the Universe But what explains motion in the universe? It would require pulling the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo together. In Principia, English mathematician Isaac Newton put forth his three laws of motion: 1. Law of Inertia – every thing remains in motion unless acted upon by a force. 2. A force causes only a change in velocity. 3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. At the center of his laws is his universal law of gravitation – that every celestial body is attracted to every other through gravity. Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
Scientific Breakthroughs – Medicine and Chemistry Galen was the pre-eminent authority of medical questions through the Middle Ages but all of his conclusions was based on animal dissection, not human. New advancements: Andreas Vesalius – accurately described structure and internal organs of humans William Harvey – proved that the heart, not the liver, circulated the blood Blaise Pascal – work led to tools such as syringe and hydraulic press Robert Boyle – first controlled experiments in chemistry, particularly gas Antoine Lavoisier – system for naming chemical elements (founder of modern chemistry). Galen (129-c. 200 CE) Greek physician
Scientific Breakthroughs – Women of Science Margaret Cavendish Attacked the idea that man was master of nature. Marriage is the grave or tomb of wit. Maria Winkelmann German astronomer who discovered a comet and the position of planets, working throughout her life within the Berlin Academy.
Philosophy and Reason – Descartes and Rationalism A mathematician, philosopher and writer from France, Rene Descartes wrote Discourse on Method (1637). His focus was on what could be proven and what could not. All truth can be determined by our ability to think (I think, therefore I am) – our ability to think makes us human. He separated mind as opposed to matter: The extension of the mind was thought and therefore, has a capacity for growth There was little extension to matter – it was fixed and therefore, could be studied and observed Considered the father of rationalism – used the method of doubt Rene Descartes (1596-1650) I am – I exist: this is certain; but how often? As often as I think…if I should wholly cease to think, that I should at the same time altogether cease to be. Meditations on First Philosophy
Philosophy and Reason – Bacon and the Scientific Method One of the biggest factors to stem from the Scientific Revolution is the scientific method – collecting and analyzing evidence to prove a hypotheses. English philosopher Francis Bacon, with little scientific background or knowledge, suggested scientists should not depend on the past “experts” but should seek their own truth. Inductive reasoning – examining things from the specific to the general. Human power, if properly channeled and directed, could conquer nature. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Ideas of the Philosophes: Reason could be used to understand all things Nurture over nature If Newton could decipher natural laws with the scientific method, all things could be figured out using the same methodology. French philosophers were the most influential
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Baron de Montesquieu was most known for The Spirit of Laws (1748) A separation of powers among the branches of government insured freedom Checks and balances insured that no one branch could damage or override another branch
In every government there are three sorts of power; the legislative; the executive, in respect to things dependent on the law of nations; and the executive, in regard to things that depend on the civil law… …The political liberty of the subject is a tranquillity of mind, arising from the opinion each person has of his safety. In order to have this liberty, it is requisite the government be so constituted as one man need not be afraid of another. When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person…there can be no liberty; because apprehensions may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to execute them in a tyrannical manner… The executive power ought to be in the hands of a monarch; because this branch of government, which has always need of expedition, is better administered by one than by many: Whereas, whatever depends on the legislative power, is oftentimes better regulated by many than by a single person. The Spirit of Laws, Baron de Montesquieu
Voltaire (1694-1778) Voltaire was and is considered the greatest thinker of the Enlightenment He attacked Christianity in favor of religious tolerance Promoted deism – the idea of God as the “clockmaker”
Natural law is that indicated to men by nature. You have raised a child; he owes you respect as a father, gratitude as a benefactor. You have the right to the products of the soil that you have cultivated with your own hands….Human law must in every case be based on natural law. All over the earth the great principle of both is: Do not do to others what you would not want done to you. Now, in virtue of this principle, one man cannot say to another: “Believe what I believe or you will perish”…In some other countries they are now content to say: “Believeor I’ll hate you; believe, or I will hurt you as painfully as I can.”If this was the law of man, the Japanese should detest the Chinese, who would abhor the Siamese; the Siamese, in turn, would persecute the Tibetans, who would fall upon the Hindus. A Mogul would tear out the heart of the first Malabarian he met; the Malabarianwould slay the Persian, who might massacre the Turk; and all of them would fling themselves against the Christians, who have so long devoured each other. The supposed right of intolerance is absurd and barbaric. It is the right of the tiger; nay, it is far worse, for tigers only kill to have food, while we destroy each other for paragraphs. Treatise on Toleration, Voltaire
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Denis Diderot is best known for Encyclopedia (1751) He was a harsh critic of religion, particularly Christianity He promoted religious tolerance He attacked traditional French society
An encyclopedia ought to make good the failure to execute such a project hitherto, and should encompass not only the fields already covered by the academies, but each and every brand of human knowledge. This is a work that cannot be completed except by a society of men of letters and skilled workmen, each working separately on his own part, but all bound together solely by their zeal for the best interests of the human race and a feeling of mutual good will…(it is only the presence of men that makes the existence of other beings significant)…For man is the unique starting point, and the end to which everything must finally be related if one wishes to please, to instruct, to move to sympathy, even in the most arid matters and in the driest details. Encyclopedia, Denis Diderot
New Social Sciences Adam Smith, Scottish philosopher, sought to explain economics. People pursuing self-interest economically will benefit society economically. Laissez-faire – government should not interfere with the economy. Famous book – The Wealth of Nations (1776) Believed in the free enterprise system – people pursue their own economic dreams without government interference Government is only responsible for those things the individual cannot do.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a Swiss philosopher and writer, suggested people had become slaves to government. The Social Contract(1762) – orderly government is based on an agreement between the people and their leaders. Each side agrees to limitations in order to achieve freedom. The “general will” represents what is best for the country. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Women’s Rights Nothing, I am sure, calls for the faculties so much as the being obliged to struggle with the world; and this is not a woman’s province in a married state. Her sphere of action is not large; and if she is not taught to look into her own heart, how trivial are her occupations and pursuits! What little arts…narrow her mind! Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787) Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) called Enlightenment thinkers out for saying the arbitrary power of kings is bad but that the arbitrary power of husbands is not. Reason is ideal and possible for all people – not just men. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
Other cultural developments during the Enlightenment: Growth of publishing and the reading public Literature focused on realistic social themes The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by Harry Fielding (orphans) Growth of magazines and newspapers (free in coffeehouses) Salon – gatherings that focused on conversations about the philosophes Secularism – the push of religion out of the public sphere Reason over strict adherence to religion ideas
Wieskirche Bavaria, Germany Rococo style The style was in tune with the Enlightenment. Focused on lightness and charm Pushed the pursuit of pleasure, happiness and love
Antoine Watteau – Embarkation for Cythera Rococo-style art Focus on upper-class world of ladies and gentlemen. Pursuit of pleasure but also a sadness – such pursuits don’t last long
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) The Father of the Symphony Farewell (Sturm und drang) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) EinekleineNachtmusik Posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Haydn
Enlightened Monarchs? Prussia Frederick William I – demanded complete loyalty to the king. Created an army that was led by the largest landowners in the small state – each had complete devotion to the king. Frederick II – more Enlightened than his predecessor, he did outlaw most torture and allowed for limited freedom of speech and press. Did not liberate the serfs and maintained a strictly controlled military and social structure.
Enlightened Monarchs? Austria Empress Maria Theresa was not a terribly Enlightened person though she did try to help the serfs. Her strong personality, in her mind, was needed to control such a diverse population. Joseph II abolished serfdom and the death penalty. He also preached the importance of equality for all and religious tolerance. His efforts met with failure as the nobles and the Catholic Church pushed back against his plans.
Enlightened Monarchs? Russia Catherine the Great believed in Enlightenment principles but was not ready to battle the Russian nobility – boyars– to make such reforms happen. Her rule was known for: Expansion Cracking down on the serfs and their rebellions (Pegachev’s Rebellion) Solidifying her power
What happened to the enlightened monarchs? The most powerful of these – Frederick and Catherine – preferred the calmer waters of absolute obedience then to individual freedoms. Joseph – the most radical of them all – was ultimately defeated by the same forces the others sought to mollify. In short, to these rulers, Enlightenment philosophies were nice ideas and all but not worth the fight or the loss in power. It would create an atmosphere ripe for war.
The Seven Years’ War – Europe Through the early 18th-century (1700s), there was a major shift in alliances and pitting France against Great Britain. The new alliances battled but with Russia backing out of the war against Prussia, it ended in a stalemate.
The Seven Years’ War – India The British proved victorious by outlasting the French. As in North America, the war in India ended with the French being driven out of the subcontinent.
The Seven Years’ War – North America The fight between the French and British in North America involved different approaches at colonies: Britain – little control, very prosperous, heavily populated France – direct control, based on trade, sparsely populated Major areas of battle was in Canada and the Ohio River valley Treaty of Paris (1763) put Canada and the Ohio River valley into English control – the French are kicked out of North America After the war, Britain was the world’s largest, most powerful empire
