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Lecture 2 on Chapter 2 Computer Evolution and Performance by Sameer Akram

Lecture 2 on Chapter 2 Computer Evolution and Performance by Sameer Akram. The Second Generation: Transistors. Use of transistors defines the second generation of computers

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Lecture 2 on Chapter 2 Computer Evolution and Performance by Sameer Akram

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  1. Lecture 2 on Chapter 2Computer Evolution and Performance by Sameer Akram

  2. The Second Generation: Transistors • Use of transistors defines the second generation of computers • It has become widely accepted to classify computers into generations based on the fundamental hardware technology employed. • Each new generation is characterized by greater processing performance, larger memory capacity, and smaller size than the previous one.

  3. The Second Generation: Transistors • Replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors • Smaller, Cheaper, Less heat dissipation • Unlike vacuum tubes, which requires wires, metal plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum • Transistor is a Solid State Device • Made from Silicon (Sand) • Invented 1947 at Bell Labs • By 1950s had launched an electronic revolution

  4. Transistor Based Computers • Second generation machines • NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines • IBM 7000 • DEC - 1957 • Produced PDP-1

  5. The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits • A single, self-contained transistor is called a “Discrete Component” • 1950’s and early 1960’s • Electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete components – transistors, resistors, capacitors and so on manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers and soldered or wired together onto circuit boards, which were than installed on computers • The entire manufacturing process, from transistor to circuit board, was expensive and cumbersome

  6. Microelectronics • Literally - “small electronics” • The basic elements of digital computer must perform storage, movement, processing and control functions • Only two fundamental types of components required: Gates and Memory Cells • A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and interconnections • These can be manufactured on a semiconductor • e.g. silicon wafer

  7. Generations of Computer • Vacuum tube - 1946-1957 • Transistor - 1958-1964 • Small scale integration - 1965 on • Up to 100 devices on a chip • Medium scale integration - to 1971 • 100-3,000 devices on a chip • Large scale integration - 1971-1977 • 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip • Very large scale integration - 1978 to date • 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip • Ultra large scale integration • Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip

  8. Moore’s Law • Increased density of components on chip • Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel • Number of transistors on a chip will double every year • Since 1970’s development has slowed a little • Number of transistors doubles every 18 months • Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged • Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance • Smaller size gives increased flexibility • Reduced power and cooling requirements • Fewer interconnections increases reliability

  9. Growth in CPU Transistor Count

  10. IBM 360 series • By 1964, IBM had a firm grip on the computer market with its 7000 series of machines • Announced System/360 family of computers not compatible with 7000 series • The 360 was the success of decade and cemented IBM as dominant computer vendor with a market share above 70% • With some modifications and extensions, the architecture of the 360 remains to this day the architecture of IBM’s mainframe computers • Compatible computers was very successful: If a customer’s needs grew, it was possible to upgrade to a faster machine with more memory without sacrifying the investment in al-ready developed software

  11. Characteristics of IBM 360 series • First planned “family” of computers • Similar or identical instruction sets • Similar or identical O/S • Increasing speed • Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals) • Increased memory size • Increased cost • Differences were achieved based on three factors: basic speed, size, and degree of simultaneity • Greater speed in the execution of a given instruction could be gained by the use of more complex circuitry in ALU, allowing subroutines to be carried out in parallel • Another way of increasing speed was to increase the width of data path between main memory and CPU

  12. DEC PDP-8 • In 1964, PDP-8 from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) • First minicomputer • Did not need air conditioned room • Small enough to sit on a lab bench • $16,000 • Hundreds of Thousands of Dollars for IBM 360 • Embedded applications & Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM) • About 50,000 machines sold in a dozen years • In contrast to central-switched architecture used by IBM for 700/7000 and 360 systems, PDP-8 used BUS STRUCTURE

  13. DEC - PDP-8 Bus Structure I/O Module Main Memory I/O Module Console Controller CPU OMNIBUS

  14. Intel • 1971 - 4004 • First microprocessor • All CPU components on a single chip • Can add two 4-bit numbers and can multiply only by repeated addition • Clock Speed 108 KHz • Bus Width 4 bits • Number of transistors 2300 • Addressable Memory 640 bytes

  15. Intel – Evolution Parameter – Number of Bits • Evolution can be seen most easily in the number of bits that the processor deals with at a time. • There is no clear-cut measure of this, but perhaps the best measure is the data bus width: the number of bits of data that can be brought into or sent out of the processor at a time. • Another measure is number of bits in accumulator or in the set of general-purpose registers. • Often these measures coincide, but not always • For example, a number of micro-processors were developed that operate on 16-bit numbers in registers but can only read or write 8 bits at a time

  16. Intel • 1972 - 8008 • First 8 bit processor • Was almost twice as complex as the 4004 • Both 4004 and 8008 were designed for specific applications • Clock Speed 108 KHz • Bus Width 8 bits • Number of Transistors 3500 • Addressable Memory 16 KBytes

  17. Intel • 1974 - 8080 • Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor • 8 bit processor • Faster, Richer Instruction Set • Larger Addressing Capability • Addressable Memory 64 Kbytes • Number of Transistors 6000 • Clock Speed 2MHz

  18. Intel • 8086 • introduced in 1978 • 16 bit processor • Bus Width 16 bits • Number of transistors 29,000 • Addressable Memory 1 MB • Clock Speeds 5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10 MHz

  19. Intel • 1981 • Bell Labs and Hewlett-Packard developed 32-bit single chip microprocessors • 1985 - 80386 • 32 bit processor by Intel

  20. Speeding it up • Pipelining • On board cache • On board L1 & L2 cache • Branch prediction • Data flow analysis • Speculative execution

  21. Speeding it up • Branch prediction The processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched from memory and predicts which branches, or groups of instructions, are likely to be processed next. If the processor guesses right most of the time, it can prefetch the correct instructions and buffer them so that the processor is kept busy

  22. Speeding it up • Data flow analysisThe processor analyzes which instructions are dependent on each other’s results, or data, to create an optimized schedule of instructions. In fact, instructions are scheduled to be executed when ready, independent of original program order. This prevents unnecessary delay.

  23. Performance Mismatch • Processor speed increased • Memory capacity increased • Memory speed lags behind processor speed

  24. DRAM and Processor Characteristics

  25. Solutions • Increase number of bits retrieved at one time • Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper” • Change DRAM interface • Cache • Reduce frequency of memory access • More complex cache and cache on chip • Increase interconnection bandwidth • High speed buses • Hierarchy of buses

  26. Pentium Evolution (1) • 8080 • first general purpose microprocessor • 8 bit data path • Used in first personal computer – Altair • 8086 • much more powerful • 16 bit • instruction cache, prefetch few instructions • 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC • 80286 • 16 Mbyte memory addressable • up from 1Mb • 80386 • 32 bit • Support for multitasking

  27. Pentium Evolution (2) • 80486 • sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining • built in maths co-processor • Pentium • Superscalar • Multiple instructions executed in parallel • Pentium Pro • Increased superscalar organization • Aggressive register renaming • branch prediction • data flow analysis • speculative execution

  28. Pentium Evolution (3) • Pentium II • MMX technology • graphics, video & audio processing • Pentium III • Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics • Pentium 4 • Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals • Further floating point and multimedia enhancements • Itanium • 64 bit

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