The Determinants of Food Choice

The Determinants of Food Choice Preparedby Dr. MayHamdan Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Major determinants of food choice • There is a need for a greater understanding of the determinants that affect food choice. • The key driver for eating is of course hunger but what we choose to eat is not determined solely by physiological or nutritional needs. • Some factors that influence food choice include: • Biological determinants such as hunger, appetite, and taste • Economic determinants such as cost, income, availability • Physical determinants such as access, education, skills (e.g. cooking) and time • Social determinants such as culture, family, peers and meal patterns • Psychological determinants such as mood, stress and blame • Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about food Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

The complexity of food choice is clear from the list before, which is in itself not complete. • Food choice factors also vary according to life stage and the power of one factor will vary from one individual or group of people to the next. • Thus, one type of intervention to modify food choice behavior will not go with all population groups. • Rather, interventions need to be geared towards different groups of the population with consideration to the many factors influencing their decisions on food choice. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

1. Biological determinants of food choice • 1.1 Hunger and satiety • Many genetic and biological mechanisms control hunger and satiety, ensuring that people will eat enough to meet their energy needs. • Throughout most of human history, getting enough food was the primary challenge. • The human body developed to function in an environment where food was scarce and high levels of physical activity were mandatory for survival. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Today’s environment, however, has the following features: • is one in which food is: • widely available, • inexpensive, • and often high in energy density, • while minimal physical activity is required for daily living. • In the current environment, people who are not devoting considerable effort to managing body weight are probably gaining weight. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

And it is important to indicate that our physiological needs provide the basic determinants of food choice. • Humans need energy and nutrients in order to survive and will respond to the feelings of hunger and satiety (satisfaction of appetite, state of no hunger between two eating occasions). • The central nervous system is involved in controlling the balance between hunger, appetite stimulation and food intake. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

The energy density of diets has been shown to exert potent effects on satiety; • low energy density diets generate greater satiety than high energy density diets. • The high energy density of high-fat and/or high-sugar foods can also lead to ‘passive overconsumption’, where excess energy is ingested unintentionally and without the consumption of additional bulk. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

An important satiety signal may be the volume of food or portion size consumed. • Many people are unaware of what constitutes appropriate portion sizes and thus by mistake consume excess energy. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Fat also imparts the following characters to the food products: • Imparts different textures to different foods: • it makes dairy products such as ice cream seem creamy, • meat juicy and tender, • pastries flaky, • and cakes moist. B. Fat enhance the palatability of Many high-fat foods like those in which fat is paired with sugar (e.g. desserts) or salt (e.g. potato chips). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

So..Foods containing fat have the following characteristics, they are: • more varied, • rich tasting, • and higher in energy density than are nonfat foods • and hence are more attractive. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

2.1 Palatability • Palatability is proportional to the pleasure someone experiences when eating a particular food. • It is dependent on the sensory properties of the food such as: • taste, • smell, • texture • and appearance. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Sweet and high-fat foods have an unquestionable sensory appeal. • It is not surprising then that food is not solely regarded as a source of nourishment but is often consumed for the pleasure value it imparts. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

In reality we eat for many reasons other than to obtain nutrients. Simply we eat for the following reasons: • we enjoy the sight or smell of certain foods, • it’s lunchtime, • we’re at a party, • we’re in a sad or a happy mood, • it’s a holiday, and a multitude of other reasons. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

The influence of palatability on appetite and food intake in humans has been investigated in several studies. • There is an increase in food intake as palatability increases, • but the effect of palatability on appetite in the period following consumption is unclear. • Increasing food varietycan also increase food and energy intake and in the short term alter energy balance (Sorensen et al. 2003). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

3.1 Sensory aspects • Taste is again and again reported as a major influence on food behavior. • In reality ‘taste’is the sum of all sensory stimulation that is produced by the ingestion of a food. • This includes not only taste per se but also smell, appearance and texture of food. • These sensory aspects are thought to influence, in particular, spontaneous (unstructured) food choice. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

From an early age, taste and familiarity influence behavior towards food. • A liking for sweetness and a dislike for bitterness are considered native human traits, present from birth (Steiner 1977). • Taste preferences and food aversions develop through experiences and are influenced by our: • attitudes, • beliefs • and expectations (Clarke 1998). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

So the question is, what are people born with and what is learned? (development of basic tastes during the human life)): • Humans are born with unlearned biological predispositions toward liking the sweet taste and rejecting sour and bitter tastes. • The liking for the sweet taste remains throughout life and appears to be universal to all cultures. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

The liking for salt seems to develop several months after birth, when infants have matured somewhat. • Preference for fat appears early in childhood. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Individual Differences: Nontasters and Supertasters • Some genetic differences in sensitivity to tastes exist between individuals. • Research shows that people differ in their responses to two bitter compounds called phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP). • When given PTC or PROP in liquid form: • some people cannot taste it and are labeled nontasters, • others are medium tasters, • and still others are supertasters. • These individuals differ in the number of taste buds they have, with supertasters having the most taste buds and nontasters the least. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Such differences between individuals may have the following effects: • differences in being able to distinguish between different foods. • and may result in differences in liking for certain foods, such as some bitter vegetables, alcohol, citrus fruit, and fatty or sugary foods. It has been suggested that such differences in responses to food may be related to food intake patterns and body weight variation. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

ExperiencewithFood • Research in this area suggests that people’s liking for specific foods and food acceptance patterns are largely learned (Mennella 2009). • Thus, what humans seem to inherit primarily is the native capacity to learn about the consequences of eating particular foods. • Learning, in this context, does not mean cognitive learning, but rather physiological learning or arising from the positive or negative consequences that people experience from repeated exposure to a food.

Pre- and Postnatal Experience • Such learning begins early, possibly even prenatally. • In one study flavors such as garlic and alcohol have been detected in mothers’ milk, possibly familiarizing infants with these flavors (Beauchamp & Mennella 2009). • In other study, breastfed infants whose mothers were fed carrot juice during pregnancy or during lactation showed increased acceptance of carrot flavor in their meals at weaning.

What are the effects of the Physiological Consequences ofEating? • Preferences • and Aversions • How humans feel physiologically after eating a food can have a powerful impact on food preferences. • If eating is followed by negative effects, such as a feeling of nausea, a conditioned aversion follows. • A one-time experience of illness following eating a food can turn individuals off that food for decades. • On the other hand, liking for foods usually develops more slowly through a process of learned or conditioned preference, whereby repeated eating of a food, or familiarity, is followed by pleasant consequences such as a feeling of fullness or satiety.

The differences between conditioning of food preferences and early experience with food: • Conditioning of food preferences continues throughout a person’s life, • but early experience with food and eating is especially vital in the development of eating patterns, in terms of both: • the kinds of food the person comes to like • and the amount he or she eats.

Experienceand eating patterns Experience with food influences the development of eating patterns of children and adults in severalwaysorforms: • Familiarity, and Learning to Accept New Foods • Humans need to search for variety in their diets to meet nutritional requirements, • but ingesting new substances can be potentially dangerous. This problem can be resolved through familiarity.

Neophobia • Although food neophobia, or negative reactions to new foods, is minimal in infants, it increases through early childhood so that 2- to 5-year-olds demonstrate neophobia. This would have adaptive value because infants are fed by adults, but toddlers are beginning to explore their world and have not learned yet what is safe to eat and what is not. • However, neophobiacan be reduced by repeated opportunities to sample new foods, sometimes requiring 12 to 15 exposures probably through a “learned safety mechanism.”

That is, when eating a food is not followed by negative consequences, increased food acceptance results. • Once the foods are familiar, the preferences tend to persist (Skinner et al. 2002). • In sum, with repeated consumption, preference for new foods tends to increase.

Thus, if children are exposed to many high sugar, high-fat, and high-salt foods at home, at school, and in other settings, then these foods will become • more familiar • and will become preferred over those that remain relatively unfamiliar, such as vegetablesorwholegrains.

3. Experience and the Basic Tastes • Biologically determined behavioral preferences can be modified by experience in adults as well. • This can be explained through the following examples: • those who eat lower-salt diets come to like them more . • The dislike for bitterness can be overcome, for example people come to like a variety of bitter tastes, such as coffee, dark chocolate, or bitter vegetables such as broccoli (( BY EXPERIENCE)). • Sour tastes, such as vinegar and grapefruit, can also become liked (( BY EXPERIENCE)).

4. Likewise the liking for dietaryfat can be modified. Studies have found that those who switched from a high-fat diet to naturally low-fat foods such as grains and vegetables or to reduced-fat foods came to like the fat taste less. Maintaining these changed preferences involved continuing to eat these new foods.

4. Learning What Fullness Means: • Research shows that in both young children and adults, a feeling of fullness or satiety is also influenced by conditioning. • Thus, as a result of repeatedly consuming familiar (Known) foods, people learn about the “filling” and the “fattening” quality of familiar foods • and normally make adjustments in what they eat in anticipation of the end of the meal .

5. Our Preference for Calorie-Dense Foods Why we prefer calorie dense food than dilute one? • The biological mechanism that assists people to like calorie-dense foods was very adaptive when food, was scarce and probably explains the universal liking for calorie-dense foods in adults. • Other reason that it is a fact that high-fat and high-sugar foods are more tasty which induce overeating of those food items.

2.2 Economic and physical determinants of food choice • Cost, income and accessibility • There is no suspicion that the cost of food is a primary determinant of food choice. • Low-income groups have a greater tendency to consume unbalanced diets and in particular have low intakes of fruit and vegetables (De Irala-Estevez et al. 2000). • However, access to more money does not automatically equate to a better quality diet but the range of foods from which one can choose should increase. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Economic theory assumes that relative differences in prices or cost can partially explain differences among individuals in terms of their food choices and dietary behaviors. • The price of food as purchased is usually : • per item, • by unit weight, • or by volume. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Processedfoodswith added fats and sugar are cheaper to: • manufacture, • transport, • and store than are perishable meats, dairy products, and fresh products Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Thisis partly becausesugar and fat on their own are both very inexpensive, resulting in part from government agricultural policies. • So a diet made up of refined grains and processed foods with added sugar and fats can be quite inexpensive. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

When freely chosen diets were studied, it was found that adding fats and sweets was associated with a 5% to 40% decrease in overall food costs, • whereas adding fruits and vegetables was associated with a 20% to 30% increase in overall food costs • So it is not amazingly that low-income individuals eat fewer fruits and vegetables. • These variations in cost may also contribute to the higher prevalence of obesity in those of lower socioeconomic status. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Accessibility to shops is another important physical factor influencing food choice, which is dependent on resources such as: • transport • and geographical location. • Healthy food tends to be more expensive when available withintowns and cities compared to supermarkets on the outskirts (Donkin et al. 2000). • However, improving access alone does not increase purchase of additional fruit and vegetables, which possibly are still regarded as expensive (Dibsdall et al. 2003). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

environmental determinants: are interpersonal determinants which are powerful factors influences on food choice and nutrition-related behaviors and must be considered by nutrition educators in planningprograms. Theyinclude: Physical/BuiltEnvironment • The built environment includes all aspects of the environment that are modified by humans, including: • food outlets (e.g., grocery stores), • homes, • schools, • workplaces, • parks, • and industrial areas. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

There is a growing body of evidence that the built environments in relation to food and physical activity have important impacts on health (Sallis & Glanz 2009). • For example (FoodAvailability and Accessibility); In developed countries and increasingly in less developed countries, food and processed food products are available and there is increasing in food items, and this have a grand effect en food choices. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Education and Knowledge • Studies indicate that the level of education can influence dietary behavior during adulthood (Kearney et al. 2000). • In general, more highly educated individuals have the following advantages  • eat a higher-quality diet • and are less sedentary partly because of watching less TV. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

People with more education may be better able to obtain process, understand, and apply information that can make them more able to eat healthfully. • They also may be more forward looking and optimistic about their future and thus willing to look for health information and make greater investments in their health. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Other studies found other different results; they found that nutrition knowledge and good dietary habits are not strongly correlated; and this is related to the following reasons: • This is because knowledge about health does not lead to direct action when individuals are unsure how to apply their knowledge. • Furthermore, the available and distributed information on nutrition comes from a variety of sources and is viewed as conflicting or is mistrusted, which discourages motivation to change. Thus, it is important to convey accurate and consistent messages through various media, on food packages and of course via health professionals and nutrition educators. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

2.3 Social determinants of food choice • Influence of social factors • What people eat is formed and constrained by circumstances or social factors that are essentially: • Social relations • Social setting • Social classes. • and cultural. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Social Relations • Society has been described as a group of people interacting in a common territory who have shared institutions, characteristic relationships, and a common culture. • Most eating occurs in the presence of other people. • The effect can be positive or negative in terms of healthful eating, in part because family and friends serve as models as well as sources of peer pressure. For example, • there is evidence that eating with others can lead to eating more food compared with eating alone, especially when the others are familiar people.

Spending more time at a meal eating with others also increases intake. • On the other hand, eating with others can also result in pressure to try new foods. • Parents’ own eating patterns likely influence that of their children(Contento et al. 2005), and it has been shown that children and adolescents who eat with their families most days each week have better-quality diets than those who eat with their familieslessfrequently

Social influences on food intake refer to the impact that one or more persons have on the eating behavior of others, either: • direct(buying food) • or indirect (learn from peer's behavior), • either conscious (transfer of beliefs) or subconscious. Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Even when eating alone, food choice is influenced by social factors because attitudes and habits develop through the interaction with others. • However, quantifying the social influences on food intake is difficultbecause: • the influences that people have on the eating behavior of others are not limited to one type • and people are not necessarily aware of the social influences that are exerted on their eating behavior (Feunekes et al. 1998). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

Social support can have a beneficial effect on food choices and healthful dietary change (Devine et al. 2003). Social support from within the household and from co-workers was positively associated with improvements in • fruitand vegetable consumption (Sorensen et al. 1998a) • and with the preparative stage of improving eating habits, (Sorensen et al. 1998b). Social support may enhance health promotion through fostering a sense of group belonging and helping people to be more competent and self-efficacious (Berkman 1995). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

The family is widely recognized as being significant in food decisions. • Research shows the family and friends have the following effects: • shapingof food choices taking place in the home. • family and friends can be a source of encouragement in making and sustaining dietary change, • Can be a source of adoptingdietary strategies which are acceptable to them which may benefit the individual whilst also having an effect on the eating habits of others (Anderson et al 1998). Prpared by Dr. May Hamdan

The Determinants of Food Choice