Classical Theory of Personality M.A. Sem - I, Paper III: Unit- I ( PERCEPTIVES OF PERSONALITY )

1. Classical Theory of Personality M.A. Sem- I, Paper III: Unit- I (PERCEPTIVES OF PERSONALITY) E- Lecture Presentation By Dr. S. Upadhyay Professor and Head Department of Psychology

2. Content of the Presentation • Introduction to Personality • Characteristics of the Personality • Determinants of the Personality • Biological factors • Psychological Factors • Family and Group factors • Situational Factors • Cultural factors • Educational factors • Various Theoretical Approaches

3. Introduction to Personality • Personality is the unique combination of patterns that influence behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human being. • An individual’s personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways; in essence, it is what makes each individual unique. Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes.

4. Indian Approach of Personality The term personality in Sanskrit means O;fDrRoewhich is bhavavacaka of ‘O;fDr%~’The term ‘O;fDr%’derived from the root‘vTtw’with‘fo & milxZ’and the suffix ‘fDru~’. This word is generally used in the sense of manifestation, evident, individuality, specific appearance and so on. Besides, the signs denoting the gender of the word, such as, iqfYyax] L=hfyax] uiqaldfyaxare collectively called Vyakti. In this context it may be noted that the grammarians consider the meaning of Vyakti as an element supporting the correct meaning of the term.

5. Western Approach of Personality The word ‘personality’ is derived from a latin word ‘persona’, which means ‘mask’. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient latin-speaking world, the mask was used as a plot device to disguise the identity of character; but it rather was a convention employed to represent the character, but in Roman times it was taken as the articular character itself. We can say that, Personality is not a fixed state but a dynamic totality which continuously changes due to relation with environment.

6. Definition of Personality According to Gordon Allport (1937), “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”. Revised Definition of Gordon Allport (1961), “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristics behaviour and thought”. According to Munn (1965), “Personality is the most characteristics integration of an individual’s structure and activities”.

7. Characteristics of Personality • There are various characteristics which throw light on the nature of Personality- • Personality is a dynamic whole: Allport reveals that the personality is the dynamic whole. The constituents of Personality are organised into units which are not static but active. • Personality measures behavior:Personality of an individual is more or less stable. It can be predicted by ones behavior. • Outcome interaction of heredity and environment: Most of the psychologists review that Personality is the net result of the interaction of heredity characters and environment factors. The growth and the development of physical, social, emotional and moral are affected by environmental factors. • Motive Force: There are many theories of motivation which help to the understand the dynamics of personality. Behavior is affected by motives, ego involvement, incentives, etc.

8. Determinants of Personality Personality is a result of the combination of some factors, i.e., physical environment, heredity, culture, psychological and educational-

9. Biological Factors Heredity:Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially influenced by who your parents were: that is, by their biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. Brain:Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (E.S.B.) research gives indication that better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of the brain. Physical Features: An individuals external appearance is proved to be having tremendous effect on his personality. For instance, the fact that a person is short or tall, fat or skinny, handsome or ugly will undoubtedly influence the person’s effect on others and in turn, will affect the self concept.

10. Family and Social Factors Socialisation Process: The contribution of family and social group in combination with the culture is known as socialisation. It initially starts with the contact with mother and later on the other members of the family (father, sisters, relatives) and the social group plays influential role in shaping an individuals personality. Identification Process: The identification process can be examined from three different perspectives. First, identification can be viewed the similarity of behaviour (including feelings and attitudes) between child and model. Second, identification can be looked as the Childs motives or desires to be like the model. Third, it can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes of the model. Apart from the socialisation and identification processes, the personality of an individual is influenced by the home environment.

11. Cultural Factors Culture is traditionally considered as the major determinant an individual’s personality. The culture largely determines what person is and what a person will learn. Culture is the “Complex of these beliefs, values, and techniques for dealing with the environment which are shared among contemporaries and transmitted by one generation to the next. Situational Factors Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of environment is quite string. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquire and represent important modifications of behaviour. Learned modifications in behaviour are not passed on to children, they must be acquired by them through their own personal experience, through interaction with the environment. According to Milgram “Situation exerts an important press on the individual.

12. Psychological Factors These include in personality motives, interests, attitudes, willpower, intelligence, reasoning capacities, perception, imagination, a level of understanding etc. A person with strong will power can make a quick decision which is needed for better adjustment . Similarly, an intelligent person will be able to make a happy adjustment and develop an understanding relationship. Educational (school) Factors A significant part of a child's life is spent in school between the ages of 6 and 20 years. In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents.The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego all of which contribute their share in molding personality. Factors that affect personality development include early school experiences, emotional climate of school or college, teacher attitudes and behaviour, academic success, extracurricular activities, peer acceptance, school subjects and kind of school.

13. Theoretical Approaches to Personality • Type theory of Personality • Bodily Characteristics • The Four Temperament Types of Hippocrates • Sheldon’s Types • Kretschmer’s Types • Psychological Characteristics • CG Jung’s Classification • Eysenck’s Personality Theory • B. Trait Theory of Personality • Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory • Raymond Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor • The Five-Factor Theory of Personality • C. Psychoanalytic Theory Kjkg • D. Neo - Freudian Theories • E. Behavioral Theory of Personality • F. Phenomenological or Humanistic Theory of Personality • G. Cognitive Perspectives on Personality • H. Social Cognitive Theories of Personality • I. Life-span Approach

14. Type theory of personality 1. Bodily Characteristics 2. Psychological Characteristics Bodily Characteristics a. The Four Temperament Types of Hippocrates: Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.), characterized human behavior in terms of four temperaments, each associated with a different bodily fluid, or "humor." The sanguine, or optimistic, type was associated with blood; the phlegmatic type (slow and lethargic) with phlegm; the melancholic type (sad, depressed) with black bile; and the choleric (angry) type with yellow bile. Individual personality was determined by the amount of each of the four humors.

15. b. Sheldon’s Types: William Sheldon divided people into three types according to body built. (1) Endomorph - soft, fat and round, sociable and relaxed. (2) Mesomorph - Heavy and muscular, physically active and noisy. (3) Ectomorph - Tall, thin and flat chested, self-conscious, shy and reserved.

16. c. Kretschmer’s Types: Kreschmer,s also divided people into four types according to body built. (1) Pyknic Type - Fat body, large head, chest and abdomen, sociable, jolly, easygoing and good-natured. (2) Athletic Type- Strong body, firm muscles, wide chest and shoulders, energetic, optimistic, challenging, sportive. (3) Asthenic Type - Lean and tall body, reserved, shy sensitive, pessimistic. (4) Dysplastic Type - Undeveloped and disproportionate body personality also undeveloped and imbalanced.

17. Psychological Characteristics a. CG Jung’s Classification: CG Jung has classified personality on sociability character as Introverts and Extraverts. (1) Introverts-Introverts are shy, social withdrawal, less tendency to talk, self-centered, unable to adjust easily in social situations. They are not easily suggestible. They are future oriented, very sensible and rigid in ideas. (2) Extraverts- Extraverts people are outgoing, friendly and social in nature. They prefer social contacts, generous, courageous and show interest in present reality than future. They express their feelings openly. Take decisions quickly, act upon quickly and not affected easily by difficulties.

18. b. Eysenck’s Personality Theory : Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal trails: (1) Introverts / Extroverts: Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing. (2) Neuroticism / Emotional Stability: This dimension is related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant. (3) Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non - empathetic and manipulative.

19. Trait Theory of Personality The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad dispositions. A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways. a. Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory : In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levels: (1) Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life. (2) Central Traits:These are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality and major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits. (3) Secondary Traits:These are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.

20. b. Raymond Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor: Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171, mostly by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics. According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all human personality. He also developed one of the most widely used personality assessments known as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

21. c. The Five-Factor Theory of Personality : McCrae and Costa have proposed a five factor model. This traits are used to describe behaviour and make prediction. However, human behaviour is an outcome of interaction between traits and situations. (1) Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of motional expressiveness. (2) Agreeableness:This trait includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors. (3) Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. (4) Neuroticism:Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, and sadness. (5)Openness: This trait characteristics is imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests.

22. Psychoanalytic Theory (1856-1939) Psychodynamic theory, originating with Sigmund Freud, posits that human behavior is the result of the interaction among various components of the mind (the id, ego, and superego) and that personality develops according to a series of psychosexual developmental stages. Freud divides human personality into three significant components: the Id, Ego and superego. The id acts according to the pleasure principle, the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes and Finally, the superego(conscience) inculcates moral judgment. ` Freud further present that Mind is a function of body. It is the sum total of the various mental processes or activities as conscious, unconsciousness and subconscious. Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development. He believed adult personality is dependent upon early childhood experiences and largely determined by age five.

23. Neo - Freudian Theories The Neo-Freudian is a group of psychiatrists and psychologists that constituted the followers of Sigmund Freud but focused more on the social environment and on the effects of culture on personality. “Neo-Freudian referring to modifications, extensions, or revisions of Freud’s original psychoanalytic theory, most commonly to those that emphasize social, cultural, and interpersonal elements rather than innate biological instincts such as sexuality and aggression.” Major theorists described as neo-Freudian are Alfred Adler (1870-1937) Erich Fromm(1900-1980) Karen Horney (1885-1952) Harry Stack-Sullivan (1892-1949)

24. Behavioral Theory of Personality The behaviorist approach views personality as a pattern of learned behaviors acquired through either classical (Pavlovian) or operant (Skinnerian) conditioning and shaped by reinforcement in the form of rewards or punishment. A relatively recent extension of behaviourism, the cognitive-behavioral approach emphasizes the role cognition plays in the learning process. Cognitive and social learning theorists focus not only on the outward behaviors people demonstrate but also on their expectations and their thoughts about others, themselves, and their own behavior. Like phenomenological theorists, those who take a social learning approach also emphasize people's perceptions of themselves and their abilities (a concept called "self-efficacy" by Albert Bandura). Another characteristic that sets the cognitive-behavioral approach apart from traditional forms of behaviorism is its focus on learning.

25. Phenomenological or Humanistic Theory of Personality Another major view of personality is the phenomenological approach, which emphasizes people's self-perceptions and their drive for self - actualization as determinants of personality. This optimistic orientation holds that people are innately inclined toward goodness, love, and creativity and that the primary natural motivation is the drive to fulfill one's potential. Carl Rogers, mostly as sociated with phenomenological theories of personality, viewed authentic experience of one's self as the basic component of growth and wellbeing. The client – centered therapy developed by Rogers relies on the therapist's continuous demonstration of empathy and unconditional positive regard to give clients the self-confidence to express their true feelings and beliefs. Another prominent supporter of this approach was Abraham Maslow, who placed self-actualization at the top of his hierarchy of human needs. Maslow focused on the need to replace a deficiency orientation, which consists with a growth orientation based on satisfaction with one's identity and capabilities.

26. Cognitive Perspectives on Personality The new cognitive psychology evolves most directly from social learning theory and extensions of behavioral theory.  It also links to humanistic psychology in its focus on the "information stored about the self" and in considerable capacity for change in personality and mental health by altering thinking patterns. The cognitive perspective of personality is the idea that people are who on the way they think, including how information is attended to, perceived, interpreted, and retrieved. It is also known as the information-processing model, with the computer serving as a convenient metaphor.  A particular strength of this theory is readily compatible with all the other perspectives, thus there are also many hybrid cognitive theories, e.g., cognitive-behavioral theory, social cognitive theory. Kelly's theory is phenomenological it focuses on cognitive because it studies mental events. It is existential because it emphasized the future and individual‘s freedom to choose, and humanistic since it focuses on creative powers and optimistic about people's ability to solve their problems.

27. Social Cognitive Theories of Personality Social cognitive theory is the view that people learn by watching others. In psychology, it explains personality in terms of how a person thinks about and responds to one's social environment. For example, in the 1960s Albert Bandura (a pioneer in social cognitive theory) argued that when people see someone else awarded for behavior, they tend to behave the same way to attain an award. People are also more likely to imitate those with whom they identify. Bandura famously illustrated social learning by showing children a video of a girl punching a doll; presented later with a doll, the children behaved in similarly aggressive ways. Not all learning is acted upon; for example, one might learn to hunt by observing others yet never actually hunt.

28. Life-span Approach This approach explains personality in conditions of changes in behaviour that take place throughout life i.e. from birth to death. Personality is explained in conditions of solutions to problems arising throughout the turning points or crisis periods at each of the eight stages in which life has been divided. Erickson mentioned eight psychosocial stages of personality; infancy, early childhood, play age, school stage, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and maturity. Erickson laid emphasis on holism, environmentalism, and changeability in human nature. He stressed the development of Ego in his theory.