1. What is a concept? • Concepts are: • Building blocks of theory • Labels that we give to elements of the social world • Categories for the organization of ideas and observations (Bulmer, 1984) • Concepts are useful for: • Providing an explanation of a certain aspect of the social world • Standing for things we want to explain • Giving a basis for measuring variation Page 163

2. Why measure? • To delineate fine differences between people, organizations, or any other unit of analysis • To provide a consistent device for gauging distinctions • To produce precise estimates of the degree of the relationship between concepts Page 164

3. Indicators of concepts • Produced by the operational definition of a concept • Less directly quantifiable than measures • Common sense understandings of the form a concept might take • Multiple-indicator measures • concept may have different dimensions Pages 164, 165

4. Why use more than one indicator? • Single indicators may incorrectly classify many individuals • Single indicators may capture only a portion of the underlying concept or be too general • Multiple indicators can make finer distinctions between individuals • Multiple indicators can capture different dimensions of a concept Pages 166, 167

5. What doesreliabilitymean? • Stability • is the measure stable over time? • e.g. test–retest method • Internal reliability • are the indicators consistent? • e.g. split-half method • Inter-observer consistency • is the measure consistent between observers? Key concept 7.3 Page 169

6. What does validitymean? Does the indicator measure the concept? It does if it has: • Face validity (right for the concept?) • Concurrent validity (supported by a relevant criterion today?) • Predictive validity (likely to be supported by a relevant criterion tomorrow?) • Construct validity (are useful hypotheses produced?) • Convergent validity (supported by results from other methods? Page 171, 172

7. Causality • Explanation • why things are the way they are • Direction of causal influence • relationship between dependent & independent variables • Confidence • in the researcher's causal inferences Pages 175, 176

8. Generalization • Can findings be generalized beyond the confines of the particular context? • Can findings be generalized from sample to population? • How representative are samples? Page 176

9. Replication • Minimizing contamination from researcher biases or values • Explicit description of procedures • Control of conditions of study • Ability to replicate in differing contexts Page 177

10. The process of quantitative research Figure 7.1, page 161

11. Criticisms of quantitative research • Failure to distinguish between objects in the natural world and social phenomena • Artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy • Lack of ecological validity • reliance on instruments and measurements • Static view of social life Pages 178, 179

12. Published accounts of quantitative research rarely report evidence of reliability and validity (Podsakoff & Dalton, 1987) • Researchers are primarily interested in the substantive content and findings of their research • Running tests of reliability and validity may seem an unappealing alternative! • But researchers remain committed to the principles of good practice Pages180, 181