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Intermolecular Forces, Liquids and Solids

Intermolecular Forces, Liquids and Solids. LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS. Compared to gases, liquids and solids are incompressible. Their density doesn’t change with temperature. These similarities are due to the molecules being close together in solids and liquids and far apart in gases

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Intermolecular Forces, Liquids and Solids

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  1. Intermolecular Forces, Liquids and Solids

  2. LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS Compared to gases, liquids and solids • are incompressible. • Their density doesn’t change with temperature. • These similarities are due to the molecules being close together in solids and liquids and far apart in gases • They are held together by intermolecular forces

  3. Intermolecular forces • Inside molecules (intramolecular) the atoms are bonded to each other. • Intermolecular refers to the forces between the molecules. • The forces that hold one molecule to another molecule. • These forces arise from unequal distribution of the electrons in the molecule and the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged portions of molecules. • These forces cause changes of state by causing changes AMONG the molecules NOT within them.

  4. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES • Physical properties such as melting points, boiling points, vapor pressures, etc. can be attributed to the strength of the intermolecular attractions present between molecules. • It works like this: the lower the boiling point (or vapor pressure or melting point), the weaker the intermolecular attractions; the higher the boiling point, the stronger the intermolecular attractions. • Hydrogen bonds are not true bonds—they are just forces of attraction that exist between a hydrogen atom on one molecule and the unshared electron pair on fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen atoms of a neighboring molecule.

  5. Intermolecular forces • Strong – covalent bonding and ionic bonding • Weak – Dipole-dipole and London dispersion forces • During phase changes the molecules stay intact. • Energy is used to overcome forces.

  6. Dipole - Dipole • the force of attraction that enables two polar molecules to attract one another. Polar molecules are those which have an uneven charge distribution since their dipole moments do not cancel. • Compounds exhibiting this type of IMF have higher melting and boiling points than those exhibiting weaker IMFs. • Molecules line up in the presence of a electric field. The opposite ends of the dipole can attract each other so the molecules stay close together. • 1% as strong as covalent bonds • Weaker with greater distance. • Small role in gases.

  7. Hydrogen Bonding • the force of attraction between the hydrogen atom of one molecule and an unshared electron pair on F, O, or N of a neighboring molecule (a special case of dipole-dipole). • Effects boiling point. • This is the strongest IMF. • Never confuse hydrogen bonding with a bonded hydrogen. • Especially strong dipole-dipole forces when H is attached to F, O, or N. These three because they have high electronegativity and they are small enough to get close. • The unique physical properties of water are due to the fact that it exhibits hydrogen bonding. As a result of these attractions, water has a high boiling point, high specific heat, and many other unusual properties.

  8. HYDROGEN BONDING • The Polar Water Molecule • Hydrogen Bonding Among Water Molecules

  9. HYDROGEN BONDING The boiling points of the covalent hydrides of the elements in groups 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A.

  10. London Dispersion Forces • Also called induced dipole-induced dipole. • the force of attraction between two non polar molecules due to the fact that they can form temporary dipoles. • Nonpolar molecules have no natural attraction for each other. Without these forces, we could not liquefy covalent gases or solidify covalent liquids. • These forces are a function of the number of electrons in a given molecule and how tightly those electrons are held. Non - polar molecules also exert forces on each other. Electrons are not evenly distributed at every instant in time. • Have an instantaneous, temporary dipole. • Induces a dipole in the atom next to it.

  11. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES • An instantaneous polarization can occur on atom A • Nonpolar molecules such as H2 also can develop instantaneous and induced dipoles

  12. London Dispersion Forces • Weak, short lived. • Lasts longer at low temperature. • Eventually molecules are long enough to make liquids. • More electrons, more polarizable. • Bigger molecules, higher melting and boiling points. • Much, much weaker than other forces. • Also called van der Waal’s forces. • Since all molecules have electrons, all molecules have these forces. These forces range from 5 to 40 kJ/mol. • The strength of this force increases as the number of electrons increases due to increasing polarizability.

  13. PHASES OF MATTER The phase of a substance is determined by three factors: • temperature. • pressure. • strength of intermolecular forces.

  14. Liquids • Many of the properties due to internal attraction of atoms. • Surface tension • Beading • Capillary action • Viscosity • Stronger intermolecular forces cause each of these characteristics to increase.

  15. SURFACE TENSION • The resistance to an increase in its surface area (polar molecules). • High surface tension indicates strong IMFs. • Molecules are attracted to each OTHER. • A molecule in the interior of a liquid is attracted by the molecules surrounding it, whereas a molecule at the surface of a liquid is attracted only by the molecules below it and on each side.

  16. SURFACE TENSION • Molecules at the top are only pulled inside. • Molecules in the middle are attracted in all directions.

  17. Beading • If a polar substance is placed on a non-polar surface, there are cohesive but no adhesive forces.

  18. Capillary Action • Spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube. • Adhesive forces between molecule and glass overcome cohesive forces between molecules themselves. • The narrower the tube, the more surface area of glass, the higher the column of water climbs! • The weight of the column sets the limit for the height achieved. • IMFs are cohesive, connecting like materials. • Adhesive forces connect to something else. • Glass is polar so it attracts water molecules.

  19. CAPILLARY ACTION • Hg liquid behaves opposite to water. Water has a higher attraction for glass than itself so its meniscus is inverted or concave, while Hg has a higher attraction for other Hg molecules! Its meniscus is convex.

  20. VISCOSITY • Resistance to flow (molecules with strong intermolecular forces). • Increases with molecular complexity (long C chains get tangled and larger electron clouds are more polarizable due to the presence of additional electrons) and increased with increasing IMFs. • Large forces, more viscous. • Cyclohexane has a lower viscosity than hexane because it is a circle- more compact.

  21. TYPES OF SOLIDS Two major types: • Crystalline - highly regular arrangement of components in their structure; example – salts, metals • Amorphous - considerable disorder in their structure; example - glass • Interparticle interactions and the ability to pack the particles together provide the main criteria for the structures of solids.

  22. CUBIC

  23. BODY-CENTERED CUBIC

  24. FACE-CENTERED CUBIC

  25. REPRESENTATION OF COMPONENTS OF A CRYSTALLINE SOLID • Lattice - a three dimensional grid that describes the locations of the pieces in a crystalline solid and designates the centers of components (atoms, ions, or molecules) that makes up the substance. • Unit Cell - The smallest repeating unit in of the lattice. • Three common types.

  26. REPRESENTATION OF COMPONENTS OF A CRYSTALLINE SOLID • Covalent network solid • Ionic salt crystal lattice • Ice – formed due to hydrogen bonding

  27. REPRESENTATION OF COMPONENTS OF A CRYSTALLINE SOLID • network covalent—carbon in diamond form—here each molecule is covalently bonded to each neighboring C with a tetrahedral arrangement. Graphite, on the other hand, exists as sheets that slide and is much softer. • ionic salt crystal lattice - Coulomb’s Law dictates the strength of the lattice • ice - notice the “hole” in the hexagonal structure and all the hydrogen bonds. The “hole” is why ice floats—it is less dense in the solid state than in the liquid state.

  28. X-RAY ANALYSIS OF SOLIDS • X-ray diffraction — A bending or scattering of light. The beams of light are scattered from a regular array of points in which the spacing between the components are comparable with the λ of the light. It is due to constructive interference when the waves of parallel beams are in phase and to destructive interference when the waves are out of phase. • The diffraction pattern can be used to determine the interatomic spacing.

  29. TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS Ionic Solid • contains ions at the points of the lattice that describe the structure of the solid (think NaCl). • VERY high MP’s. • Hard. • Ion-Ion Coulombic forces are the strongest of all attractive forces. • “IMF” usually implies covalently bonded substances, but can apply to both types.

  30. TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS • Molecular Solid: discrete covalently bonded molecules at each of its lattice points (sucrose, ice). • Atomic Solid: atoms of the substance are located at the lattice points. Carbon—diamond, graphite and the fullerenes. Boron, and silicon as well.

  31. TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

  32. The book drones on • Using diffraction patterns to identify crystal structures. • Talks about metals and the closest packing model. • It is interesting, but trivial. • We need to focus on metallic bonding. • Why do metal atoms stay together? • How their bonding affects their properties.

  33. METALLIC SOLIDS • Metals are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, and ductility. • These properties are explained by the nondirectional covalent bonding found in metallic crystals.

  34. METALLIC SOLIDS closest packing • a model that uses hard spheres to represent the atoms of a metal. • These atoms are packed together and bonded to each other equally in alldirections. • It will be easiest for you to understand if you can imagine taking a cubic box and pouring in marbles. The marbles will layer, perhaps directly on top of one another, but perhaps one layer slides into the “dimple” made by the first layer so that the two layers are offset a bit. Next, remove the marbles and place tennis balls into the box. They will fill the box differently since they are of a different size.

  35. METALLIC SOLIDS • In the diagram in each layer, a given sphere is surrounded by six others. • a) exhibits aba packing—the second layer is like the first, but it is displaced so that each sphere in the second layer occupies a dimple in the first layer. The spheres in the third layer occupy dimples in the second layer so that the spheres in the third layer lie directly over those in the first layer hence aba. aba has the hexagonal unit cell shown below and the resulting structure is hexagonal closest packed (hcp) structure. ababab….

  36. METALLIC SOLIDS • b) exhibits abc packing—the spheres in the third layer occupy dimples in the second layer so that no spheres in the third layer lie above any in the first layer. The fourth layer is like the first. abc has a face-centered cubic unit cell and the resulting structure is cubic closest packed (ccp) structure. abcabc…

  37. Hexagonal Closest Packed Structure

  38. Cubic Closest Packed Structure

  39. Bonding models for metals • Remember, metals conduct heat and electricity, are malleable and ductile, and have high melting points. • These facts indicate that the bonding in most metals is both strong and non-directional. • It is difficult to separate metallic atoms, but easy to move them provided they stay in contact with each other!

  40. Bonding models for metals • Electron Sea Model: A regular array of metals in a “sea” of electrons. I A & II A metals pictured at left.   • Band (Molecular Orbital) Model: Electrons assumed to travel around metal crystal in MOs formed from valence atomic orbitals of metal atoms.

  41. Metallic bonding Empty Molecular Orbitals 3p Filled Molecular Orbitals 3s 2p 2s 1s Magnesium Atoms

  42. The 1s, 2s, and 2p electrons are close to nucleus, so they are not able to move around. Empty Molecular Orbitals 3p Filled Molecular Orbitals 3s 2p 2s 1s Magnesium Atoms

  43. The 3s and 3p orbitals overlap and form molecular orbitals. Empty Molecular Orbitals 3p Filled Molecular Orbitals 3s 2p 2s 1s Magnesium Atoms

  44. Electrons in these energy level can travel freely throughout the crystal. Empty Molecular Orbitals 3p l l Filled Molecular Orbitals 3s 2p 2s 1s Magnesium Atoms

  45. This makes metals conductors Malleable because the bonds are flexible. Empty Molecular Orbitals 3p l l Filled Molecular Orbitals 3s 2p 2s 1s Magnesium Atoms

  46. Bonding models for metals Metal alloys: a substance that has a mixture of elements and has metallic properties • substitution alloys - in brass, one third of the atoms in the host copper metal have been replaced by zinc atoms. Sterling silver - 93% silver and 7% copper. Pewter - 85% tin, 7% copper, 6% bismuth and 2% antimony. Plumber’s solder - 95% tin and 5% antimony. • interstitial alloy - formed when some of the interstices (holes) in the closest packed metal structure are occupied by small atoms. Steel - carbon is in the holes of an iron crystal. There are many different types of steels, all depend on the percentage of carbon in the iron crystal.

  47. NETWORK COVALENT SOLID • Also called Network Atomic Solid • Composed of strong directional covalent bonds that are best viewed as a giant molecule. • Both diamond and graphite are network solids. • The difference is that diamond bonds with neighbors in a tetrahedral 3-D fashion, while graphite only has weak bonding in the 3rd dimension.

  48. NETWORK COVALENT SOLID • brittle—diamond is the hardest substance on the planet, but when a diamond is “cut” it is actually fractured to make the facets. • do not conduct heat or electricity • carbon or silicon-based

  49. Carbon- A Special Atomic Solid There are three types of solid carbon. • Amorphous- coal • Diamond- hardest natural substance on earth; colorless; insulates both heat and electricity. hard, colorless and an insulator. • Graphite- slippery; black; conducts electricity. How the atoms in these network solids are connected explains why.

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