Theories and Models of Persuasion

1. Theories and Models of Persuasion ELM, HSM, and TRA

2. Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) Two basic routes to persuasion: Central and Peripheral They represent the ends of an “elaboration continuum.” They represent qualitatively different modes of information processing.

3. Central processing • The Central route is reflective, requires mental effort, relies on cognitive elaboration • Motivation (willingness) to process a message • Ability to process (understand) a message • Example: Lulu is car shopping. She looks up information comparing safety, reliability, performance, customer satisfaction, mileage, and depreciation for three makes of sporty cars. • She scrutinizes the information carefully before making a decision.

4. Peripheral processing • The Peripheral route is reflexive, based on mental shortcuts: • credibility, appearance cues, quantity of arguments • heuristic cues (decision rules): rules for simplifying the thought process • “Experts can be trusted” • “Quality costs more” • “As seen on TV” • “Always tip 17%.” • Example: A Christian homeowner hires a plumber because the plumber’s ad in the Yellow Pages includes an ichthys symbol (sign of the fish).

5. Peripheral cues “It’s your watch that says the most about you” (slogan for Seiko watches). Does wearing glasses make a person smarter? If a celebrity endorses a product does that mean it’s good? Are 10 arguments necessarily better than 3?

6. Peripheral cues and patriotism

7. Alcohol ads and peripheral processing • American children view 2,000 beer and wine commercials per year (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1995). • Beer advertisements are a significant predictor of adolescent preference for beer brands (Gentile, 2001). • 56% of students in grades 5-12 say that alcohol advertising encourages them to drink (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001).

8. The ELM Model • Attitudes formed via the central route are more enduring. • Attitudes formed via the peripheral route are more transitory.

9. Which ad relies on peripheral processing?

10. Central or peripheral processing?

11. Central or peripheral processing?

12. Involvement and the ELM • The role of involvement in the topic or issue: • High involvement increases the likelihood of central processing. • Low involvement increases the likelihood of peripheral processing. • High involvement decreases reliance on credibility (peripheral cue). • High involvement increases the persistence of persuasion.

13. Involvement and the ELM • High involvement promotes central processing. • Low involvement promotes peripheral processing. High Involvement Central processing Deliberate thinking Persuasion Exposure to message Low Involvement Peripheral processing Shallow thinking Persuasion

14. Motivation and Ability • To utilize central processing, a person must have the motivation and ability to do so. • Motivation is greater when the issue or outcome affects the person directly. • Ability is based on the person’s capacity to comply.

15. Criticisms of the ELM • No clear-cut accommodation for parallel (simultaneous) processing. • Critics charge that the ELM is not falsifiable. • The ELM can’t specify a priori whether a message will be processed centrally or peripherally. • Operationalization of “strong” and “weak” arguments is tautological. • Limited range of topics or issues has been studied. • Studies conducted by Petty & Cacioppo show stronger findings than studies conducted by others.

16. Heuristic-Systematic Model • Bears many similarities to the ELM • Two basic routes or modes of information processing • Systematic processing is more thoughtful, deliberate, analytical. • Analogous to “central” processing in the ELM • Heuristic processing is more reflexive, automatic. • Analogous to “peripheral” processing in the ELM • Relies on decision rules, e.g., “Never pay retail.” • Decision rules are activated under the appropriate circumstances.

17. Is Simultaneous Processing Possible? • Is there true simultaneous processing, or simply rapid switching back and forth? • Multi-tasking as an example: • driving + cellphone (difficult) • studying + background music (less difficult) • Knitting while talking (less difficult) • If simultaneous processing exists, does it exist for words? For images? • Processing two oral or written messages at once? • Processing a written message and an image?

18. Heuristic Processing in Pharmaceutical Ads • A majority of ads for pharmaceutical manufacturers rely on emotional appeals to attract consumers. • A study of 122 ads by pharmaceutical manufacturers revealed that 62% relied on emotional appeals, such as hope, fear, or sympathy (Annals of Internal Medicine)

19. Heuristic or systematic processing?

20. Heuristic or systematic processing?

21. Heuristic or systematic processing?

22. Heuristic cues must be: Available: stored in memory for potential use Accessible: activated from memory Applicable: related to the receiver’s goals or objectives

23. HSM, continued • Motivation and ability to process a message are key determinants. • Sufficiency principle: people don’t want to spend too much or too little time/effort making a decision. • HSM allows for the possibility of simultaneous processing (both systematic and heuristic). • Example: Ned thinks Mini Coopers look really cool and, after doing some research, he finds they also perform well in crash tests and have higher than average reliability.

24. Unimodel of Persuasion less elaboration more elaboration • An alternative to dual process models. • The unimodel rejects the notion of two distinct types of processing. • There is simply more or less processing. • One can think more or less about an issue. • If one thinks more, cognitive elaboration will be higher. • If one thinks less, cognitive elaboration will be lower.

25. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) • Developed by Fishbein & Ajzen in the 1970’s • The TRA is a “rational” model of persuasion. • It presumes people are rational decision makers. • It presumes people make use of available information. • Behavioral intentions are the best predictor of actual behavior.

26. TRA continued Belief about the outcome Attitude toward the behavior Evaluation of the outcome Actual behavior Behavioral intention Normative beliefs Subjective norm component Motivation to comply

27. Illustration of the TRA Ned has been drinking heavily ever since he started college. Attitude toward the behavior: “I think drinking is ruining my health and it caused me to get fired from my job.” Subjective Norm component: “I know my friends and family would like me to stop drinking.” Intention: “I intend to stop drinking altogether.” Behavior: Ned attends his first AA meeting the next day.

28. Criticisms of the TRA As its name suggests, the theory of reasoned action does not apply to habitual, reflexive behavior. The attitudinal and normative components are not conceptually distinct.

29. Theory of Planned Behavior • An extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action • The TpB adds the additional element of perceived behavioral control (self-efficacy). • Internal factors might prevent or reduce control (lack of knowledge, lack of skill). • External factors might prevent or reduce control (limited time or resources). • Intentions correlate more strongly with actual behavior when there is perceived behavioral control.