The Nervous system

1. The Nervous system The nervous system of this zebrafish is shown in green. I don�t know how they did this!The nervous system of this zebrafish is shown in green. I don�t know how they did this!

2. The Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Nerves Enables you to control your body Gives you feedback about the world What does it do? What are its component parts? (I don�t know why this image shows the pelvis � it isn�t part of the nervous system!) Ask students to discuss in groups what they think are the component parts of the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the �central nervous system� while the nerves comprise the �peripheral nervous system�. Students can then discuss what they think are the main functions of the nervous system before you reveal them.(I don�t know why this image shows the pelvis � it isn�t part of the nervous system!) Ask students to discuss in groups what they think are the component parts of the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the �central nervous system� while the nerves comprise the �peripheral nervous system�. Students can then discuss what they think are the main functions of the nervous system before you reveal them.

3. Look away if you�re squeamish�

4. The Cells of the Nervous System - Neurones The nervous system � brain, spine and nerves - is made up of very specialised cells called nerve cells or neurones (also spelt �neurons�). They have all the main features of animal cells: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, etc. � but also some very specialised features which allow them to do their particular job. The large blob towards the lower left seems to be the cell body of a neurone, with an axon branching off to the right. The nervous system � brain, spine and nerves - is made up of very specialised cells called nerve cells or neurones (also spelt �neurons�). They have all the main features of animal cells: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, etc. � but also some very specialised features which allow them to do their particular job. The large blob towards the lower left seems to be the cell body of a neurone, with an axon branching off to the right.

5. The route impulses take Overview of the route signals take through the nervous system. The brain or spinal cord is sometimes referred to as the �co-ordinator� in this process.Overview of the route signals take through the nervous system. The brain or spinal cord is sometimes referred to as the �co-ordinator� in this process.

6. The route impulses take Students must be clear about the types of neurones, in particular sensory neurones (from receptors to spine/brain, giving feedback on the outside world) and motor neurones (from brain/spine to effectors, which are usually muscles, enabling the brain/spine to control the body). These neurones are one-way only. For non-reflex reactions, there would be many relay neurones involved on the right, as the impulse from the sensory neurone enters the brain and the brain then makes decisions on how to respond, and sends impulses to the appropriate muscles.Students must be clear about the types of neurones, in particular sensory neurones (from receptors to spine/brain, giving feedback on the outside world) and motor neurones (from brain/spine to effectors, which are usually muscles, enabling the brain/spine to control the body). These neurones are one-way only. For non-reflex reactions, there would be many relay neurones involved on the right, as the impulse from the sensory neurone enters the brain and the brain then makes decisions on how to respond, and sends impulses to the appropriate muscles.

7. The Spine The key component here is the spinal cord, protected by the vertebrae of the spine. Nerves connect the spinal cord to all parts of the body.The key component here is the spinal cord, protected by the vertebrae of the spine. Nerves connect the spinal cord to all parts of the body.

8. The spine � the message motorway Nerves from the body connect to the spinal cord at different points. The spinal cord is like a highway carrying many impulses to and from the brain. From this diagram you can see the consequences of breaking the spinal cord at different points. All connections below a break will be lost.Nerves from the body connect to the spinal cord at different points. The spinal cord is like a highway carrying many impulses to and from the brain. From this diagram you can see the consequences of breaking the spinal cord at different points. All connections below a break will be lost.

9. Effects of a spinal cord injury on breathing With a spinal cord injury of C4 and higher, all the muscles which control breathing will be paralysed. These are the intracostal muscles, the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles. In order to breathe, the person will need a machine called a ventilator to breath for them. In order to cough, the person will need help by way of a carer performing an assisted cough procedure. Injuries between C4 and T6 will leave the person able to breathe on their own. However, because the intracostal muscles may be weakened or paralysed depending on the level of injury, breathing may be done solely or mainly by the diaphragm. Again, coughing may also be a problem. Injuries between T6 and T12 do not normally affect breathing. However the ability to cough will be impaired. It is only with injuries below T12 that normal breathing and cough reflexes are preserved. Some students find this particularly interesting, and want to know the consequences of different spinal injuries. For lower ability or less interested students you may want to hide this slide.Some students find this particularly interesting, and want to know the consequences of different spinal injuries. For lower ability or less interested students you may want to hide this slide.

10. Left: sensory neuroneRight: motor neurone Not clear enough for students to copy, but gives them an idea of the two neurone types. Students could be asked to pick out similarities and differences between the two.Not clear enough for students to copy, but gives them an idea of the two neurone types. Students could be asked to pick out similarities and differences between the two.

11. Above: Sensory NeuroneBelow: Motor Neurone More detailed � you may or may not wish to show this, as it shows more than students need to know at GCSE. For most syllabuses, they do not need to know the terms �synaptic endings�, �node of Ranvier�, �myelin sheath� and �Schwann cell�.More detailed � you may or may not wish to show this, as it shows more than students need to know at GCSE. For most syllabuses, they do not need to know the terms �synaptic endings�, �node of Ranvier�, �myelin sheath� and �Schwann cell�.

12. Diagrams and Drawings in Biology These are all images of motor neurones (except perhaps for the photo � I don�t know what type of neurones these two are�) This is to show students that there are many different ways of representing the same thing. Colours are not always realistic, but may be used in different ways for clarity.These are all images of motor neurones (except perhaps for the photo � I don�t know what type of neurones these two are�) This is to show students that there are many different ways of representing the same thing. Colours are not always realistic, but may be used in different ways for clarity.

13. Not until A-level! For students who may be interested in going further with Biology, there is still plenty more to learn after this! A cell is a highly complex and fascinating thing.For students who may be interested in going further with Biology, there is still plenty more to learn after this! A cell is a highly complex and fascinating thing.

14. Nerves � bundles of neurones Again, notice that the colours do not necessarily reflect reality. Individual neurones are bundled together in nerves. The neurones do not interfere with each other, but all act independently, and each neurone is one-way only. A single nerve contains both motor neurones and sensory neurones. A nerve is a bit like a bundle of optical fibres used in telecommunications. Like all cells, nerve cells need energy to function. So the nerves also contain tiny blood vessels (capillaries) to carry oxygen and glucose to the cells.Again, notice that the colours do not necessarily reflect reality. Individual neurones are bundled together in nerves. The neurones do not interfere with each other, but all act independently, and each neurone is one-way only. A single nerve contains both motor neurones and sensory neurones. A nerve is a bit like a bundle of optical fibres used in telecommunications. Like all cells, nerve cells need energy to function. So the nerves also contain tiny blood vessels (capillaries) to carry oxygen and glucose to the cells.

15. Close-up of a nerve Magnified image showing neurones in a nerve.Magnified image showing neurones in a nerve.

16. Single neurones in cross-section The axon (long part) of a neurone is surrounded by a fatty layer (called the myelin sheath). This acts as an electrical insulator. (Motor neurone disease is a disease which causes this insulator to break down. Signals leak out of the neurones and do not reach their destination muscles, so people with the disease gradually lose the ability to control their muscles.) The green bands in the image are the fatty insulation layer, highly magnified.The axon (long part) of a neurone is surrounded by a fatty layer (called the myelin sheath). This acts as an electrical insulator. (Motor neurone disease is a disease which causes this insulator to break down. Signals leak out of the neurones and do not reach their destination muscles, so people with the disease gradually lose the ability to control their muscles.) The green bands in the image are the fatty insulation layer, highly magnified.

17. How Impulses Pass from Neurone to Neurone � the Synapse The synapse is a tiny gap between one neurone and the next. The electrical signal reaches the end of the first neurone, and this triggers the release of chemicals. The arrival of these chemicals at the next neurone triggers the start of an electrical impulse. This is how the impulse gets from one neurone to the next. For most GCSE syllabuses, students do not need to know the terms �axon terminal�, �synaptic vesicles� (�sacs containing chemicals� will do) or �neurotransmitter� (�chemicals� is enough).The synapse is a tiny gap between one neurone and the next. The electrical signal reaches the end of the first neurone, and this triggers the release of chemicals. The arrival of these chemicals at the next neurone triggers the start of an electrical impulse. This is how the impulse gets from one neurone to the next. For most GCSE syllabuses, students do not need to know the terms �axon terminal�, �synaptic vesicles� (�sacs containing chemicals� will do) or �neurotransmitter� (�chemicals� is enough).

18. Synapses Incidentally, you may be wondering why there should be synapses at all � why not have the neurones directly connected to one another, without a gap? One reason is to ensure that the flow of impulses is in one direction only. At a synapse, only one of the neurones contains sacs of chemicals for release, while the other is the only one with receptors for those chemicals.Incidentally, you may be wondering why there should be synapses at all � why not have the neurones directly connected to one another, without a gap? One reason is to ensure that the flow of impulses is in one direction only. At a synapse, only one of the neurones contains sacs of chemicals for release, while the other is the only one with receptors for those chemicals.

19. Types of Synapse Not in GCSE, so you may want to hide this slide, but interesting to know that neurones can connect to each other in different ways. Taken from �Neuroscience For Kids� at http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.htmlNot in GCSE, so you may want to hide this slide, but interesting to know that neurones can connect to each other in different ways. Taken from �Neuroscience For Kids� at http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html

20. A Neuro-Chip It is just now becoming possible to take a single neurone and incorporate it into a microchip, in which the neurone acts as a tiny electrical connector. This may lead to some interesting possibilities in the future�mind-reading?...downloading your memories?It is just now becoming possible to take a single neurone and incorporate it into a microchip, in which the neurone acts as a tiny electrical connector. This may lead to some interesting possibilities in the future�mind-reading?...downloading your memories?

21. Reflex Reactions � bypassing the brain for extra speed Reflex reactions do not involve the brain; the brain is simply informed of them afterwards. The receptor causes an impulse along a sensory neurone, which connects to a relay neurone in the spine. Rather than taking the impulse up to the brain, it passes it directly to a motor neurone which causes a reaction in an appropriate muscle. Reflex reactions are usually there to protect the body from sources of danger, e.g. heat or injury. The body is full of �reflex arcs� like this, ready for action should the need arise.Reflex reactions do not involve the brain; the brain is simply informed of them afterwards. The receptor causes an impulse along a sensory neurone, which connects to a relay neurone in the spine. Rather than taking the impulse up to the brain, it passes it directly to a motor neurone which causes a reaction in an appropriate muscle. Reflex reactions are usually there to protect the body from sources of danger, e.g. heat or injury. The body is full of �reflex arcs� like this, ready for action should the need arise.

22. Reflex Reactions Can you think of any? Students can test out the iris reflex.Students can test out the iris reflex.

23. Knee Jerk Reflex Students could (carefully!) try this on themselves or each other. A hammer is not needed � the side of the hand works just as well. Gently tap just below the knee, and if you hit the right spot, the leg will jerk forwards. This movement is involuntary.Students could (carefully!) try this on themselves or each other. A hammer is not needed � the side of the hand works just as well. Gently tap just below the knee, and if you hit the right spot, the leg will jerk forwards. This movement is involuntary.

24. Why the knee jerk reflex? This reflex is quite useful for walking.� Every time you put weight on your foot, your muscles contract to support you.� Without this reflex, we would all look silly staggering around, having to consciously think about working our muscles for each step, but with the muscles reacting too hopelessly late to be useful.� Chewing gum at the same time would be out of the question.