URBDP 591 I Lecture 3: Research Process

1. URBDP 591 I Lecture 3: Research Process Objectives • What are the major steps in the research process? • What is an operational definition of variables? • What are the relationships between validity and the research process? • How do we select a research method?

2. Research is a Dynamic Tension BetweenTheory and Real World Field of Inquiry Area of Interest Problem-Idea Theory Hypothesis Theory Real World Research Question is the point of contact that links theories to the real world. Research Question Subjects Measures Procedures Problem Analysis

3. Research Process Research Question • Hypothesis • development • Conceptualization • Construct • Operational Definition • Design Structure • Experimental • Individual Difference • Descriptive Theory Development • Specification • Sampling • Instruments • Statistical tests • Implementation • Data Collection • Data Analysis • Evaluation • Interpretation • Draw conclusions • Assess uncertainty • Evaluate process

4. Research objectives • What is the broad topic area/academic discipline? • What are the main originating and specifying questions to be investigated? • What is the rationale of the research? What debates, controversies,areas of knowledge does it aim to address and/or extend?

5. Types of Research Projects 1. Fact-finding/filling gaps in knowledge 2. Testing hypotheses 3. Establishing a relationship between variables 4. Examining the adequacy of models or theories 5. Critical analysis of a theoretical position or proposition 6. Uncovering or explicating the meaning of a concept, practice, or situation

6. Good Research Questions • Grounded in theoretical and empirical literature • Testable by empirical methods • Stated clearly and simply • Not too abstract • Not too complex

7. Hypothesis A hypothesis is a tentative statement, subject to empirical testing, of the expected relationship between variables; sometimes in practice it is little more than "an educated guess". Essentially what happens is, a scientist will think "if my theory is correct, I should be able to predict that event X will occur with a higher than chance probability”.

8. Evaluating Theory • Testable • Logical soundness (deductive validity) • Communicable • General • Parsimonious: Necessary and Sufficient conditions • Accurate (inductive validity) 0

9. Operationalization A procedure by which one selects observable indicators (variables) to represent theoretical concepts. A variable is a theoretically relevant concept which may be observed to take different values in different cases 1. Independent variable (explanatory variable) - A variable that is taken as a given in our research and used to explain other phenomena. 2. Dependent variable (outcome, response variable) - A variable whose values we try to explain by looking at other variables.

10. Operationalization of a variable Operationalization of a variable defines how the variables we have identified and defined will be measured with real (available) data. Obstacles to operationalizing variables 1. Conceptual obstacles to operationalization 2. Practical obstacles to operationalization a. Reliability: a measure is reliable if it yields the same values for a particular case in repeated measurements b. Validity: a measure is valid if it is an appropriate measure of the concept in which you are interested

11. Types of Validity Measurement is a tool of research, and validity is the attempt to determine whether a type of measurement measures what it is presumed to measure. A. Construct validity. Construct validation is interested in the degree to which the construct itself is actually measured. It makes use of the traits of convergence and discriminability. B. Internal validity. Internal validity is the freedom from bias in forming conclusions in view of the data. It seeks to ascertain that the changes in the dependent variable are the result of the influence of the independent variable. C. External validity. This type of validity is concerned with the generalizability of the conclusions reached through observation of a sample to the universe. D. Statistical validity. This type of validity is concerned with the appropriate choice of statistical test.

12. Reliability Reliability: the extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same answer however and whenever it is carried out. 1. Quixotic reliability: Refers to the circumstances in which a single method of observation continually yields an unvarying answer. 2. Diachronic reliability: Refers to the stability of an observation over time. This type of reliability is only appropriate when the phenomenon observed is not assumed to change over time. 3. Synchronic reliability: Refers to the similarity of results from the use of multiple measures within the same time period.

13. Relationships between Validity and the Research Process Design Instruments And Classify Operational Definitions State Questions Define Hypotheses Identify Variables Determine Design Structure Identify Population And Sample Select Statistical Tests Analyze Data Collect Data Internal Validity

14. Relationships between Validity and the Research Process Design Instruments And Classify Operational Definitions State Questions Define Hypotheses Identify Variables Determine Design Structure Identify Population And Sample Select Statistical Tests Analyze Data Collect Data External Validity

15. Relationships between Validity and the Research Process Design Instruments And Classify Operational Definitions State Questions Define Hypotheses Identify Variables Determine Design Structure Identify Population And Sample Select Statistical Tests Analyze Data Collect Data Statistical Validity

16. Relationships between Validity and the Research Process Design Instruments And Classify Operational Definitions State Questions Define Hypotheses Identify Variables Determine Design Structure Identify Population And Sample Select Statistical Tests Analyze Data Collect Data Construct Validity

17. Research Approaches

18. Selecting a research method for data collection Experiment, Quasi-Experiment, Cross-Section, Longitudinal, Case study Selecting a methods depends on: • the research question/purpose • the operational definition of the construct of interest (difference/associational) • the required protocols for reliability and validity

19. Qualitative/Quantitative Research Continuum Inductive Inquiry Deductive Inquiry Understanding Social Phenomena Establishing Relationships Grounded-theory Theory-Based Holistic Inquiry Focused on Components Context-specific Context-Free Observer-Participant Detached Role of Researcher Narrative Description Statistical Analysis QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Ethnographic Experimental Historical Quasi-experimental Phenomenological Survey Source: Newman & Benz 1998

20. Mixed-Method • Triangulation: tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments. • Complementarity: clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method. • Development: results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the research process. • Initiation: stimulates new research questions or challenges results obtained through one method. • Expansion: provides richness and detail to the study exploring specific features of each method.